text:
"India is now a nuclear weapons state."
Last changed 30 March 2001
Despite the U.S. government's self-declared "surprise" at India's multiple tests in May 1998, India's march towards an openly declared nuclear capability underscored by new tests was clear for a number of years.
During the last several years the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (Indian People's Party, or BJP) has emerged as the dominant power in domestic politics. One of its key platform issues has been its desire to make India an openly declared nuclear power. The BJP created a short-lived government for 13 days in May 1996, and it is now known that Vajpayee actually authorized nuclear tests at that time, and the devices got as far as being placed in the test shafts, before he called them off when it became evident that his government was unlikely to survive long enough to deal with the aftermath.
Two years later however, on 10 March 1998, the BJP achieved a strong electoral victory and finally succeeded in putting together a governing coalition of 13 (later 20) parties. The BJP wasted no time in making clear its intention to deploy nuclear weapons. On 18 March 1998, the day before he was sworn in as Prime Minister, PM-designate Vajpayee declared "There is no compromise on national security. We will exercise all options including nuclear options to protect security and sovereignty,". An official planning report further stated directly that the new BJP government intended to "re-evaluate the nuclear policy and exercise the option to induct nuclear weapons".
Considering the numerous test preparations that had been detected over the past three years, and Vajpayee's 1996 actual test authorization which was undoubtedly known to U.S. intelligence by that time, and after such announcements there would seem to be little excuse for being "surprised" by subsequent events. The underlying reason seems to have been a very ill advised cut-back in the analysis of imagery of the Pokhran site, combined with greater stealth on the part of the Indians. Given the considerable activity at the site over the previous three years, and the intelligence that the CIA undoubtedly had by then that Vajpayee had actually ordered tests during his previous short-lived government, it was not a difficult assessment to realize that Pokhran should be watched more carefully after Vajpayee took office, rather than less. It appears that the one NIMA (National Imagery and Mapping Agency) assigned to the site actually did detect suspicious activity on the morning of May 11, 6 hours before the tests (and about the time they were originally scheduled for detonation) and was waiting for further review of his findings when the tests were announced.
The 1998 election (like all Indian national elections) was held in phases from 16 February to 7 March.
The BJP (Bharatiya Janata Party - the Indian People's Party) had been growing steadily in strength over the past decade, riding on a wave of ethnic-religious politics advocating Hindu-based nationalism. The BJP, and its allied parties the VHP (Vishwa Hindu Parishad) and RSS (Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh) had been largely responsible for creating this religious separatism through agitation like the Ram Temple campaign, that had led to a mob assault on the Babri Mosque in Ayodhya and its destruction, followed by nation-wide rioting that had killed 3000.
The 1998 BJP campaign was marked by some very unfortunate grandstanding - like Prime Minister candidate Vajpayee's declaration on 25 February that a BJP government would "take back that part of Kashmir that is under Pakistan's occupation." An important part of the BJP platform was its declared intention to "exercise the option to induct nuclear weapons" - that is, to open deploy a nuclear arsenal. This was in keeping with the position that the BJP, its predecessor the Jana Sangh, and Vajpayee himself had held for 35 years that India should become an openly nuclear power to garner the respect on the world stage that India deserved. The BJP's declarations on the subject were toned down a bit from earlier years, a move that can be understood as an effort to make their program palatable to as large a segment of India's voting population as possible. The BJP had formed a 13 day government two years earlier, and needed all the support it could get to form a stable government.
|Atal Behari Vajpayee
On 10 March 1998 it was announced that the BJP had won 26 percent of the popular vote, and gained 250 seats in the Lok Sabha, 22 short of an outright majority. President Raman Narayanan gave Vajpayee the first opportunity to form a government, and after several days of negotiations he finally succeeded in putting together a governing coalition of 13 (later 20) parties. The BJP wasted no time in making clear its intention to deploy nuclear weapons. On 18 March 1998, the day before he was sworn in as Prime Minister, PM-designate Vajpayee declared "There is no compromise on national security. We will exercise all options including nuclear options to protect security and sovereignty,". An official planning report reiterated the campaign position that the new BJP government intended to "re-evaluate the nuclear policy and exercise the option to induct nuclear weapons".
Prime Minister-Elect Vajpayee consulted with Abdul Kalam the day before he was sworn in to office and asked him to join the cabinet. Kalam declined, indicating that he was needed at his current post to support the nuclear program. It is possible that at this meeting Vajpayee indicated his intention to prepare for and conduct nuclear tests. Certainly Kalam, keenly aware of Vajpayee's previous near brush with testing anticipated that tests would be imminent, and would likely have brought the subject up. Vajpayee consulted again with both Kalam and AEC Chairman R. Chidambaram on 20 March. Chidambaram had declared in an interview only days before that nuclear tests were needed. Chidambaram briefed Vajpayee extensively on the nuclear program, and the devices that had been prepared; Kalam presented the status of the missile program. At the conclusion of the meeting Vajpayee told them to be ready to test, but made no committment to conduct tests. Accordingly, the test preparations began immediately after the meeting even though the tests had not yet been approved.
On 28 March the BJP-led coalition passed a vote of confidence, 275 to 260. This was the milestone that had prevented tests from being conducted by the BJP in 1996. The way was now clear to go forward. On 9 April Vajpayee met again with Kalam and Chidambaram and asked how long it would take to conduct tests, Kalam indicated that tests could be conducted 30 days from the decision to go ahead, Vajpayee told them to fix a date and coordinate it with Brajesh Mishra, Principal Secretary to PM Vajpayee (and an ardent advocate of nuclear armament for India). The next day, the scientists reviewed preparations at Pokhran. Thirty days from 10 April was 10 May, but President Narayanan was scheduled to be touring Latin America from 26 April and 10 May. Narayanan was not in the loop on nuclear tests, and it would have been diplomatically awkward to have him surprised by the tests, and the inevitable controversy while abroad. Further, attempting to accelerate the tests by testing before 26 April would not work since Chidambaram's daughter was getting married on 27 April. Chidambaram's absence at his own daughter's wedding and preparations would have been a red flag that something was afoot. Kalam and Chidambaram provided Mishra with the date 11 May as the earliest practical date. Mishra checked the date with Vajpayee who then gave the authorization for the tests.
The atmosphere was tense in the following few weeks leading up to Operation Shakti (Operation Power, the May 1998 nuclear test series). Pakistan's Foreign Minister Gohar Ayub (also referred to as Gohar Ayub Khan) had offered a "carrot" of soothing rhetoric on the day of Vajpayee's swearing in, saying at a Conference on Disarmament in Geneva that Pakistan would offer India "an agreement with India for an equal and mutual restraint in conventional, missile and nuclear fields."
The "stick" side of the Pakistani equation was reemphasized on 6 April when Pakistan tested a new missile, named Ghauri, with a range of 1500 km (900 miles) and a payload of 700 kg (though it flew only 800 km in this test). This missile program had been known since 1997, and Pakistan had hinted about the imminent test on 23 March, but the test came as a shock to India which had felt itself far ahead of Pakistan with the Agni program although this program had been dormant for four years now. This escalation of the strategic challenge fro Pakistan could only have strengthened Vajpayee's to conduct the tests.
In an inauspiciously timed visit, Bill Richardson, leading a high level U.S. delegation that visited New Delhi on 14 August, chose to take that opportunity to reassert the existence of a special relationship with Pakistan.
The next day, the Richardson delegation visited Pakistan. During the visit Dr. Abdul Qader Khan, the self-proclaimed father of Pakistan's nuclear weapons program, always ready to take the spotlight with inflammatory rhetoric, told the Urdu daily Ausaf on 15 April "We are ready to carry out nuclear explosion anytime and the day this political decision will be made, we will show the world," during an informal chat with journalists. "We have achieved uranium enrichment capability way back in 1978 and after that several times we asked different governments to grant us permission to carry out a nuclear test. But we did not get the permission," the daily quoted him as saying. Asked when Pakistan would carry out a nuclear test, Dr. Khan was quoted as having said, "Get permission from the government." Khan was not a spokesman for the government at the time, but he remained extremely influential and was still closely connected with the corridors of power in Pakistan.
And throughout the 52 day period between Vajpayees swearing-in and the tests, occasional artillery and small arms fire was exchanged between the two nations, as it has been for years, on the Siachen glacier, the world's highest and coldest battlefield.
On 4 May the colorful and controversial Indian Defense Minister George Fernandes reemphasized his views on nuclear arms, saying that ""My views have not changed after I became defense minister, ... I agree with our decision not to sign the CTBT or NPT (Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty). We should not only keep the nuclear option open, but also think about exercising this option to make nuclear weapons". Only two days later Fernandes set off an international tiff with China when he declared China to be India's "potential enemy number one" and claimed that many tactical nuclear weapons were stationed on the Indian border. In retrospect these remarks by Fernandes seemed part of a deliberate strategy to prepare the ground for India's tests -- illustrating that India regards itself as acting on the world stage and facing threats from a recognized world power, rather than needing defenses against a regional state like Pakistan. In fact Fernandes, like the Defense Minister's who preceded him, was not in the loop regarding nuclear decisions. He was not on the very short list of government leaders who knew what was up.
Project Leaders:
Development and Test Teams
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Shaft mouth for one of the Shakti
tests. The camouflage netting is
an interesting feature. If this
was one of the three shaft dug in
the early 80s, and not used until
the Shakti I-III shots on 11 May
1998, then camoflaging it might be
a possible give-away since it
presumably would have been un-
camoflaged for almost two decades.
The Shakti Test Devices
|Shakti I
|Two stage thermonuclear device with fusion boosted primary, intended for missile warhead;
test design yield 45 kt, with a 200 kt deployed yield
|Shakti II
|Lightweight pure fission tactical bomb/missile warhead, 12 kt design yield
|Shakti III
|Fission experimental device, reportedly made with reactor-grade plutonium.
Probably a fusion boosted design without the fusion fuel, 0.3 kt design yield
|Shakti IV
|0.5 kt experimental device
|Shakti V
|0.2 kt experimental device
|Shakti VI
|Not fired; another low yield experimental device?
According to Chengappa the plutonium for the devices weighed 3 to 8 kg, depending of the device, and were colored gray due to the coating applied to contain the radioactivity (and no doubt to prevent oxidation of the plutonium). The explosives surrounding the cores was colored a dull orange.
Three laboratories of the DRDO were involved in designing, testing and producing components like advanced detonators, the implosion systems, high-voltage trigger systems. They were also responsible for weaponization -- systems engineering, aerodynamics, safety interlocks and flight trials.
The tests were organized into two groups that were fired separately, with all of the devices in a group fired at the same time. The first group consisted of the thermonuclear device, the fission bomb, and a sub-kiloton device, and two more sub-kiloton devices made up the second group.
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Key scientists and engineers on 10 May 1998.
Abdul Kalam is on left (silver hair);
R. Chidambaram is holding file;
Anil Kakodkar is behind Chidambaram wearing
glasses; K. Santhanam is at extreme right.
The Regiment 58 Engineers had learned a lot since 1995 about how to avoid detection by U.S. spy satellites. A lot of work was done at night, and heavy equipment was always returned to the same parking spot at dawn so that image analysts would conclude that they had never moved. Piles of sand were shaped to mimic the wind-aligned and shaped dune forms in the area. When cables were laid they were carefully covered and native vegetation replaced to conceal the digging.
The first three devices were emplaced on 10 May, the day before the tests. The shafts were L-shaped, with a horizontal chamber for the test device. The first device to be placed was the sub-kiloton device in the Kumbhkaran shaft. The Army engineers sealed the shaft at 8:30 p.m. Then the thermonuclear device was lowered in the White House shaft, sealing this shaft took until 4 a.m. the next morning. By then the atomic bomb was being emplaced in the Taj Mahal shaft. It was sealed at 7:30 a.m., just 90 minutes from the planned test time.
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Preparing to fire the devices in the control
bunker, code named "Deer Park." K. Santhanam
transfers the firing keys to the range safety
officer Vasudev.
K. Santhanam of the DRDO, who was in charge of the test site preparations, gave the two keys that activated the test countdown to Vasudev, the range safety officer, who was responsible for verifying that all test indicators were normal. After checking the indicators, Vasudev handed one key each to a representative of BARC and of the DRDO, who together unlocked the countdown system. At 3:45 p.m. the three devices detonated.
The tests were conducted on the Buddhist festival day of Buddha Purnima, the same festival day on which the 1974 test was conducted. This appears to have been a coincidence, the tests having been conducted at the earliest date that they could be made ready, though it has been widely assumed to have been intentional.
On Monday, 11 May 1998, at 10:13:44.2 UCT (+/-0.32 sec; 6:13:44.2 a.m. EDT; 3:43:44.2 p.m. local) as measured by international seismic monitors, India declared itself a full fledged nuclear armed state. This was accomplished by the detonation of a thermonuclear weapon design, one of three nuclear devices with kiloton-range yields detonated simultaneously under the surface of the Thar desert of Rajasthan near the Indo-Pakistani border. This de facto declaration was followed shortly thereafter by an official one. In a hurriedly convened press conference Indian Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee said:
"I have an announcement to make: today at 3:45 p.m., India conducted three underground nuclear tests in the Pokhran range (in Rajasthan state).
These were contained explosions like the experiment conducted in May 1974,"
Vajpayee said Monday in a brief statement, referring to the 1974 underground 12 kiloton test known as Smiling Buddha also conducted at Pokhran. Vaypayee further stated that like the 1974 test, none of the three tests resulted in venting into the atmosphere (which was not entirely true - some venting had occurred).
He went on to say that the devices tested were a thermonuclear device, a fission device, and a low-yield device.
"I warmly congratulate the scientists and engineers who have carried out
these successful tests," Vajpayee added.
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PM Vajpayee waves to
well-wishers after the
second test series on 13 May
Just two days later on 13 May, at 6:51 UCT (2:51 a.m. EST, 12.21 p.m. local Indian time) India detonated two more sub-kiloton nuclear devices underground before declaring that the test series was completed.
The test series was dubbed Operation Shakti-98 (Power-98) and the five tests are designated Shakti I through V. Like the 1974 test's moniker "Smiling Buddha", this name seems to have been stuck on the test series after the fact. The test operation itself apparently did not have a formal name. More recently it has been common to refer to the five shot test series as Pokhran II, the 1974 shot being Pokhran I.
Read the
Seismic data collected by stations outside of India have placed the total magnitude of the first event at 5.0 (+/- 0.4), making it one of the largest seismic events in the world during the 24 hr period in which it occurred. The measured seismic center of the triple event was located at 27.0716 deg N latitude, and 71.7612 deg E longitude, which places it only 2.8 km from the 1974 test site (which was at 27.095 deg N, 71.752 deg E). The general area of these tests is usually given as Pokharan (or Pokhran), a town about 25 km away. This is area is a military test range with four areas (A through D). The test sites are just outside the abandoned village of Malka, are 6 km to the northeast of the nearest inhabited village of Khetolai (population 1200), and 10 km south of Loharki, and are about 100 km from the Indian border with Pakistan.
The first group of three tests (Shakti I, II, and III) were reported to have a combined yield of about 55 (or 58) kilotons and consisted of a two stage thermonuclear weapon design (Shakti I) with a yield of 43 kt, +/- 3 kt, (also stated to be 43-45 kt), a 12 kt test of a light compact weaponized tactical fission bomb, and a 0.2 kt tactical fission weapon. There were three shafts located about 1 km from each other and 3.5 km from the control room. The Shakti I shaft was designated "White House" (also called "Whisky"), the Shakti II shaft was known as "Taj Mahal" (also called "Tango"), and the Shakti III shaft was called "Kumbhkaran". The shots were fired simultaneously. The second phase of two tests (Shakti IV and V) had yields of 0.5 and 0.3 kilotons, and were fired in shafts designated NT 1 and 2 (for Navtala, the area where they were dug). A third device and shaft (NT 3) was prepared but was not fired. The second group of shots was conducted to generate additional data for improved computer simulation of designs.
The claimed yields of these devices is not well supported by available evidence. Assigning yields to the different devices from direct outside measurement is impossible since only the total yield of all three can be measured. For detailed discussion of this see"What Are the Real Test Yields?".
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|Nuclear bomb (probably the Shakti I thermonuclear device) being lowered into test shaft.
Larger image of the bomb (566x800, 61K).
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|Dust columns from the Shakti test series on 11 May 1998
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|Mouth of a test shaft after the 11 May 1998 detonation. Either the White House or Kumbhkaran shaft.
|Shakti I
|15:47:07 11 May 1998 (IST);
10:17:07 UCT (Indian Government), 10:13:42 UCT (USGS)
|Pokhran, Thar Desert, Rajasthan, India
27.0716 deg N, 71.7612 deg E
|Test Height and Type:
|Underground, more than -200 m
|30 kt est. (22-30 kt possible range; 43-45 kt claimed)
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432x295, 43K
|The collapsed sheds around the mouth of the White House shaft where India's thermonuclear device was tested (three versions of the same image).
|Shakti II
|15:47:07 11 May 1998 (IST);
10:17:07 UCT (Indian Government), 10:13:42 UCT (USGS)
|Pokhran, Thar Desert, Rajasthan, India
27.0716 deg N, 71.7612 deg E
|Test Height and Type:
|Underground, more than -150 m
|12 kt
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|The subsidence crater at the site of the Taj Mahal shaft where India's tactical fission bomb was tested. Taken shortly after the shot, this aerial picture shows the test sheds still standing. The crater appears to be about 80 m across and 15 m deep.
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|The Taj Mahal subsidence crater with sheds. Observe the figures standing on an observation platform built on the sand slide area, distinctive for its light color with dark streaks.
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|Later images, with the sheds missing. All are shot from roughly the same position across toward the sand slide. The second are third may be different scans of the same photograph.
|Shakti III
|15:47:07 11 May 1998 (IST);
10:17:07 UCT (Indian Government), 10:13:42 UCT (USGS)
|Pokhran, Thar Desert, Rajasthan, India
27.0716 deg N, 71.7612 deg E
|Test Height and Type:
|0.3 kt
640x412, 55K
310x200, 24K
430x254, 42K
|Shakti IV and V
|12:21 13 May 1998 (IST);
6:51 13 May 1998 (UCT)
|Pokhran, Thar Desert, Rajasthan, India
27.0716 deg N, 71.7612 deg E
|Test Height and Type:
|Two shots, both shallow underground
|< 0.1 kt each?? (0.5 kt and 0.3 kt claimed)
350x240, 18K
640x416, 39K
432x291, 17K
Three versions on one image of a dune where one of the second series of sub-kiloton shots was fired.
The crater appears to be 3.5 - 4 m across.
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|Damage in the village of Khetolai on 13 May 1998, 4-6 km from the test sites.
The Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) International Data Centre originally assigned the event the ID number EVENT 1391897, but changed it to "EVENT 1392074" when subjected to manual analysis. The seismic data from the 1998 tests can be accessed from the IDC web site, the tests are summarized with a map here. Also see the BGR Hannover Seismic Data Analysis Center for a nice summary of the seismic data with a map. The preliminary seismic data form the International Data Centre, which was generated automatically is in this file, while the expert evaluated data prepared five days later is here.
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|The weapon scientists at the 16 May press
conference. From right Anil Kakodkar, Abdul
Kalam, R. Chidambaram, and K. Santhanam.
340x320, 49K
|Drs. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam and Rajagopala
Chidambaram at the press conference
following the test series.
The largest device tested, Shakti I, was a two-stage thermonuclear design using a boosted fission primary which Chidambaram claimed had a yield of 43 kt (also described as 43 kt +/- 3 kt). Shakti II, the next largest device, was a refined lightweight pure fission device with a yield of 12 kt. Shakti III the third device tested on 11 May was a 0.3 kt fission device using less-than-weapon grade plutonium. Both of the devices in the second test group, with yields of 0.5 and 0.3 kilotons, were experimental devices detonated to generate additional data for improved computer simulation of weapon designs.
On the other hand, there continues to be considerable controversy about the accuracy of this information, particularly regarding the yields of the thermonuclear device, and the second series of sub-kiloton shots. In summary the balance of the evidence indicates that the claimed yields are significantly overstated - particularly regarding the thermonuclear device, and the total yields of both test groups. The available information indicates that Shakti I could not have had a yield larger than 25 kt, but was at least 22 kt (based on Indian drilling data). The evidence offered by the Indian government to date to support the 43 kt yield claim is weak, in fact a plain reading of their own seismic evidence puts the yield at or below 25 kt. Accepting the radiological and photographic evidence for this second group of tests offered by BARC as valid, the complete absence of a seismic signal for theses shots defies explanation at the present time if the stated test time and yields are even is even remotely correct. BARC does not appear to have offered an explanation for this anomaly.
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Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee visits Pokhran on
20 May 1998. Vajpayee is seated in front wearing
sunglasses. To his right is Abdul Kalam, to this left
Defense Minister George Fernandes, and R. Chidambaram.
Third from right (standing) is S.K.Sikka lead in
thermonuclear device development.
|Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee visiting the Pokhran test site.
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800x478, 80K
From left, PM Vajpayee, Defense Minister George
Fernandes, Abdul Kalam, and R. Chidambaram.
The reasons given for the second group of tests are entirely credible and are consistent with the objectives of other nuclear weapons nations in recent testing activities (either nuclear tests prior to the CTBT signing, or sub-critical tests afterward). India's stated interest in gathering high quality physical data for use in simulations is quite consistent with a well planned weapon development effort.
The use of simultaneous detonations of multiple nuclear devices has been a routine practice by other nuclear weapons states. The principal purposes of this technique are to minimize the ability of other nations to collect intelligence data about the tests (ironically too successful, given India's subsequent and not entirely convincing efforts to publicize its test results), and to reduce the cost and difficulty of test preparations. In India's case the desire to minimize political repercussions and outside pressure also motivated a compressed schedule of simultaneous tests.
Corroboration of a sort for India's explanations for the different tests on 11 May was given immediately after they were fired, and four days before the official AEC/DRDO announcements, by commentary on their military significance offered by P.K. Iyengar, the former chairman of India's AEC. On 12 May he told Reuters in Mumbai (Bombay) that their differing sizes corresponded to three ways in which nuclear bombs might be used.
According to Iyengar, the smallest was the size that might be fired as an artillery shell or dropped from a combat support aircraft. The mid-size blast was from a standard fission device equivalent to about 12 kilotons -- the size that might be dropped from a bomber plane. The largest of the three warheads tests on Monday was not a full hydrogen bomb. Most of its 50 to 100 kiloton explosive force came from the primary, a fission device which serves as a trigger for the H-bomb's big fusion explosion. Iyengar said the device contained only a token amount of the hydrogen variant tritium. It showed that India's thermonuclear technology worked, but did not produce the megaton explosion typical of a full H-bomb.
"We need not go for a megaton explosion while testing an H-bomb," said Iyengar, one of the scientists involved in India's only other nuclear test, in 1974. "Such tests are required only if we are planning for a total destruction of the opposite side. They don't have relevance in our strategy."
One technical issue that affects all three of the low yield tests, with yields of 0.2, 0.3, and 0.5 kilotons, is that the yields of low yield fission tests are very sensitive to physical parameters like the amount of fissile material present, the degree and uniformity of compression, and the nuclear properties of the materials. Even if the Indian designers have achieved very accurate control over the implosion process, without test data in this yield range to calibrate their models they would have difficulty predicting the exact yield of their devices. This of course is one reason for conducting these tests in the first place, but it also means that there is a good chance of overshooting or undershooting the target yields. Thus the intended yields of these devices may be significantly different than the yields produced, on the other hand if the advertised yields are the expected ones, then the actual ones may be significantly different.
After the Indian tests were reported Pakistani Foreign Minister Ayub initially stopped short of saying that Pakistan would conduct a nuclear test of its own, but said "We in Pakistan will maintain a balance with India in all fields... We are in a headlong arms race on the subcontinent."
"The responsibility for dealing a death blow to the global efforts at nuclear non-proliferation rests squarely with India," he told the Senate in the Pakistani capital of Islamabad.
Others in Pakistan were not so cautious. "We have now to show that we have a counter regional bomb," Hamid Gul, the former head of Pakistan's secret service, said Monday. "All the Muslim countries are vulnerable to India's ambitions that are driving it toward the Gulf and central Asia."
Former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto said in a BBC interview in London that her government had a contingency plan in 1996 to carry out a nuclear test if India did. She said the capability still existed, and should be used. "If we don't, India will go ahead and adopt aggressive designs on us," she said. She further indicated that the test should be conducted within the month.
Popular reaction in India was overwhelmingly positive. A Times of India poll registered a 91 percent approval rating for the tests.
After a day of silence China's initial reaction was muted. Beijing warned that India's nuclear tests would harm peace and stability in South Asia. China is "seriously concerned" about the tests, the state-run Xinhua News Agency said in a brief report quoting Foreign Ministry spokesman Zhu Bangzao.
In general world reaction was strongly disapproving. "The United States is deeply disappointed by the decision of the government of India to conduct three nuclear tests," President Clinton's spokesman Mike McCurry said. "This runs counter to the effort the international community is making to promulgate a comprehensive ban on such testing."
"The United States intends to address its concern directly to New Delhi," McCurry said. "We will continue to spare no effort in encouraging countries to both promulgate and ratify the comprehensive test ban. If anything, these tests underscore the importance of that international regime."
Praful Bidwai, an independent Indian weapons policy analyst who had urged India to abandon its pursuit of nuclear weapons, said a thermonuclear device was a sign India's program has progressed considerably since it tested a simpler fission device in 1974. "We have dropped the ambiguity completely," he said. "China and Pakistan will regard us as a full-fledged nuclear adversary and so we will have two nuclear arms races -- a small one with Pakistan and a big one with China."
If the first group of tests evoked disapproval, the second group of tests created a flurry of consternation.
"Today? Two?," Chinese foreign ministry spokesman Zhu Bangzao exclaimed upon hearing of the second set of shots. "We have no immediate comment," he said, adding that China would study the matter.
"The Indian leadership has gone berserk," Pakistan's Foreign Minister Gohar Ayub Khan told Reuters when asked about the latest tests, and said its actions had been encouraged by a weak Western response to India's weapons program.
In keeping with its preferred approach to foreign policy in recent decades, the US imposed economic sanctions of India as punishment. In fact a 1994 anti-proliferation law made such action virtually automatic.
Most other nations refrained from joining the US in imposing an economic embargo. Since most nations are not imposing similar sanctions, and India's exports and imports together constitute only 4% of its GDP, with US trade being only 10% of this total, the overall effect on India's economy from a direct trade embargo was small. Far more significant were the restrictions on lending imposed by the United States and its representatives on international finance bodies.
The day after the first tests Ayub Khan said the Asian subcontinent has been thrust into a nuclear arms race and indicated that Pakistan was ready to conduct a nuclear test of its own. "We are prepared to match India, we have the capability ... We in Pakistan will maintain a balance with India in all fields," he said in an interview. "We are in a headlong arms race on the subcontinent."
Prime Minister Mohammad Nawaz Sharif was much more subdued, refusing to say whether a test would be conducted in response: "We are watching the situation and we will take appropriate action with regard to our security," he said.
After returning to the country from a trip to Central Asia on 13 May Sharif met for several hours with senior military officials and senior members of his government to discuss India's action, which appeared to have taken Pakistan's security establishment by surprise. "We didn't have any advance information on these explosions," said a member of Sharif's cabinet.
Another cabinet member said, "Not surprisingly, many ministers thought it was the ideal moment for Pakistan to test its nuclear device," and Pakistan's army informed Sharif that it will be ready "within a week" to conduct an underground nuclear test on 24 hours' notice. But officials familiar the deliberations spoke of a division within the cabinet over an appropriate Pakistani response.
According to an aide, Sharif appeared to favor "a balanced and moderate response" and ordered a report on the cost the country would have to bear if a Pakistani nuclear test brought international sanctions.
The same day President Clinton telephone Sharif and urged him not to go ahead with a test, asking him "not to respond to an irresponsible act in kind."
But by week's end American spy satellites had detected an influx of equipment at a previously prepared test site in the Chagai Hills in the desert of southwestern Baluchistan province, barely 50 km from the border with Iran, and the CIA was predicting that a test could occur as early as Sunday 17 May.
Over the weekend Sharif consulted with various parties and factions, and remained under enormous pressure to test. Meanwhile public reaction continued to favor an immediate response. Former PM Benazir Bhutto advocated not only an immediate nuclear test by Pakistan, but also asserted that India should be disarmed by a preemptive attack.
Meanwhile the US worked on putting together an incentive package to Pakistan to persuade it not to test. The repeal of the Pressler amendment that cut off military aid was offered, as was delivery of $600 million dollars worth of F-16 fighter-bombers that Pakistan had ordered and paid for but never received. Discussions also began on how much aid to offer Pakistan on top of these concessions. The automatic imposition of a nearly complete embargo like that imposed on India, but which much smaller Pakistan could hardly afford, provided the penalty side of the equation.
The tension was ratcheted up on Saturday by Ayub Khan, known to be a hard-liner with close ties to the military, when he remarked to reporters that a nuclear test by Pakistan "is just a matter of timing and the government of Pakistan will choose as to when to conduct the test." "A nuclear test by Pakistan is certain," he added.
He repeated the remarks the next day, telling The Associated Press that Pakistan has decided to go ahead with a test of a nuclear device. "It's a matter of when, not if, Pakistan will test," he said. "The decision has already been taken by Cabinet," he said in a telephone interview from his rural home in northwestern Pakistan.
The frenzy reached a peak on Sunday when the nuclear device was believed to be in place for a test. There was even a brief flurry of excitement caused by a false alarm on Sunday when German President Helmut Kohl said he had "reliable information" saying Pakistan had exploded a bomb, a report that was quickly denied and discredited.
But PM Sharif did not confirm the comments by Ayub, and by the beginning of the next week, Pakistan appeared to have backed off any immediate decision to test, and was content to see how much in aid the US might offer in return.
On 25 May it was reported by the Associated Press and Reuters that U.S. intelligence officials had said that Pakistani preparations had accelerated in recent days at a site called Raskoh in the Chagai Hills (it later transpired that Ras Koh was indeed the test area, but Ras Koh is a separate mountain range over 40 km from the Chagai Hills area). Tunneling activities and the setup of explosive monitoring equipment had been observed. "At this point, they could conduct a nuclear test at any time," said one official.
At the same time it had become increasingly likely that any U.S. aid package would fall short of Pakistani expectations. The major inducements suggested at this point - the delivery of 28 F-16s that Pakistan has already paid for and was promised by Pres. Clinton two years ago anyway, and the rescheduling of loans - was not very tempting. Pakistan seemed to be after explicit U.S. security guarantees, something that was unlikely to be offered.
Late in the day on 27 May the U.S. government reported that Pakistan had been observed pouring cement in a test shaft in the Chagai Hills. This indicated that nuclear test devices were being sealed in, which is the final necessary step before conducting nuclear tests. Officials then predicted that tests could occur within hours.
On 28 May at 15:00 UCT: PM Sharif announced that Pakistan has detonated five nuclear devices. Seismic readings indicate a detonation time of 10:16:17.6 UCT (+/- 0.31 sec). See the preliminary seismic data, and the official announcement from the Pakistan government web site.
This was prepared using materials provided by the Indian, Pakistani, and United States governments, by the Associated Press, Reuters, Agence France-Presse, The Times of India News Service, The Washington Post, The Los Angeles Times, The New York Times, the Associated Press of Pakistan, the Press Trust of India, Science News, and the High Energy Weapons Archive.


text: /realtors/index.html Resources for Realtors/New Residents #VilleMadeA graduate "made in Pattonville" is ready for success in life, whether the next step in their journey leads to college or career. Through a personalized, innovative approach to education, we equip our students with the knowledge, skills and critical thinking abilities that enable to them to thrive in a constantly changing world. In Pattonville, children are at the center of everything we do. We care about their hopes and dreams for the future. Because of this, we don't ask children to adapt to a one-size-fits-all education. We adapt to their learning needs. We get to know our students as individuals to better understand their strengths and challenges, and we use data to help us make smart decisions that will have the greatest impact on their learning. What's more, our students benefit from learning in a high-achieving, diverse school environment that enjoys the support of a connected and caring community. About Pattonville SchoolsOur SchoolsPoints of PridePattonville brochurePattonville data and statisticsCurriculum Summaries/Handbooks, etc.Special School District (Special education services for Pattonville students in Grades K-12)Early childhood programs Enrolling in PattonvilleHow to Enroll/Residency Requirements About Our CommunitiesLearn about the communities that Pattonville servesCommunity resources - activities for children and families Attendance Boundaries and MapsPattonville attendance boundaries Activities for All LearnersCommunity Education Program For More InformationIf you have questions about the Pattonville School District or need informational resources, please contact the Pattonville School-Community Relations Department at (314) 213-8025 or by e-mail.

subset: commoncrawl


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By Luke Anderson
How many of you hate changing the battery in your calculator? I know that I would, were they not as a majority, solar-powered. Apparently someone has decided that light is a resource that we are using up far too quickly, and thus designed a calculator that runs off of water.
For this little guy to work, you just pour water into the rear and insert a stopper. The electrolytes in the water will take care of the rest. I'm seriously wondering what kind of person would believe that their calculator would need a power source other than light. Seriously, how would you use this without working in an area with plenty of light? If you're intrigued by this water-powered gadget, you can pick one up for $8.99. Personally, I'll wait for these guys to make a car that's powered by water.
[ Bits And Pieces ] VIA [ Gearfuse ]


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-My interest in photography started in my film photo class years ago. The magic that happens in a darkroom is something that I will never get over. It truly is MAGIC. I've been photographing weddings and families ever since taking that first photo class (over 10 years ago!). Over the past few years, I've discovered my heart belongs in documenting happy families.
-Motherhood inspires me. I find inspiration in my day to day interactions with my own children, as well as the interactions I see between my clients and their children. It is those small, seemingly insignificant interactions that so quickly disappear where I find the most beauty. The gentle touch of a first time dad holding his newborn daughter, the ridiculous smile a two year old gives to his mother, the day to day humdrum that in time means everything. Is everything. I truly believe that relationships and love are really what life is all about. And that is what I capture. Those sweet moments because they are fleeting. And we all want to remember them. Keep them.
"…the day to day humdrum that in time means everything. Is everything. I truly believe that relationships and love are really what life is all about."
-Besides photography, I love traveling and experiencing new places (sans kids), road biking, hiking and binge watching old episodes of Criminal Minds.
Photo by Lauren Grigg Photography


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No stronger sense of place shaped my life and my future than the setting of my childhood home. On our recent trip to the ALDHA Gathering, I walked the Appalachian Trail of my youth to seek out memories.
Absecon Lighthouse
First lit in 1857, it's the third tallest lighthouse in the United States, 171 feet tall. Yet it's tough to spot Absecon Lighthouse when you scan the skyline of Atlantic City.
Atlantic City's True Nature
Atlantic City, New Jersey, isn't where you'd expect a nature trail. But the 1.1 mile AC Waterfront Sculpture Walk, a great birding destination, leads you along a panorama of Atlantic City's wild spaces.
Glowing Stones at the Sterling Hill Mining Museum
At the Sterling Hill Mining Museum in Ogdensburg, New Jersey, history meets glowing rocks, as fluorescent minerals show off an array of brilliant colors inside a former mine.


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|Divergent phialides and long, tangled chains of elliptical conidia borne from more complex fruiting structures characteristic of Purpureocillium lilacinum; magnification 460X.
|Scientific classification
Luangsa-ard, Hywel-Jones, Houbraken & Samson (2011)
|Type species
Purpureocillium lilacinum
(Thom) Luangsa-ard, Hou- braken, Hywel-Jones & Samson (2011)
Paecillium Luangsa-ard, Hywel-Jones & Samson nom. prov. (2007)[2]
Purpureocillium is a fungal genus in the Ophiocordycipitaceae family. The genus is monotypic, containing the single species Purpureocillium lilacinum, a common saprobic, filamentous fungus. It has been isolated from a wide range of habitats including cultivated and uncultivated soils, forests, grassland, deserts, estuarine sediments and sewage sludge, and insects. It has also been found in nematode eggs, and occasionally from females of root-knot and cyst nematodes. In addition, it has frequently been detected in the rhizosphere of many crops. The species can grow at a wide range of temperatures – from 8 to 38 °C (46 to 100 °F) for a few isolates, with optimal growth in the range 26 to 30 °C (79 to 86 °F). It also has a wide pH tolerance and can grow on a variety of substrates.[3][4] P. lilacinum has shown promising results for use as a biocontrol agent to control the growth of destructive root-knot nematodes.
- Taxonomy and phylogeny 1
- Description 2
- Life cycles 3
- Human pathogenicity 4
Biocontrol agent 5
- Control of plant-parasitic nematodes 5.1
- Enzymes 5.2
- Egg infection 5.3
- Mycotoxins 6
- References 7
Taxonomy and phylogeny
The species was originally described by American mycologist Charles Thom in 1910, under than name Penicillium lilacinum.[5] Taxonomic synonyms include Penicillium amethystinum Wehmer and Spicaria rubidopurpurea Aoki.[1] In 1974, Robert A. Samson transferred the species to Paecilomyces.[3] Publications in the 2000s (decade) indicated that the genus Paecilomyces was not monophyletic,[6] and that close relatives were Paecilomyces nostocoides, Isaria takamizusanensis and Nomuraea atypicola.[7] The new genus Purpureocillium was created to hold the taxon. The generic name refers to the purple conidia produced by the fungus.[8]
Purpureocillium lilacinum used to be classified with the Fungi Imperfecti or Deuteromycetes, fungi for which perfect (i.e., sexually reproducing) states have rarely been found. Paecilomyces lilacinum was classified in the section Isarioidea, for which perfect states have not been found. Many isolates of P. lilacinum have been identified from around the world and it is accepted that variation exists within the species. Phylogenetic analysis of P. lilacinum isolates show that it is more closely related to Trichoderma, Gliocladium and Hypocrea than to the other entomopathogenic Paecilomyces species in the Hypocreales.[6]
Purpureocillium lilacinum forms a dense mycelium which gives rise to conidiophores. These bear phialides from the ends of which spores are formed in long chains. Spores germinate when suitable moisture and nutrients are available. Colonies on malt agar grow rather fast, attaining a diameter of 5–7 cm within 14 days at 25 °C (77 °F), consisting of a basal felt with a floccose overgrowth of aerial mycelium; at first white, but when sporulating changing to various shades of vinaceous. The reverse side is sometimes uncolored but usually in vinaceous shades. The vegetative hyphae are smooth-walled, hyaline, and 2.5–4.0 µm wide. Conidiophores arising from submerged hyphae, 400–600 µm in length, or arising from aerial hyphae and half as long. Phialides consisting of a swollen basal part, tapering into a thin distinct neck. Conidia are in divergent chains, ellipsoid to fusiform in shape, and smooth walled to slightly roughened. Chlamydospores are absent.[3]
Life cycles
Purpureocillium lilacinum is highly adaptable in its life strategy: depending on the availability of nutrients in the surrounding microenvironments it may be entomopathogenic,[9][10][11] mycoparasitic,[12] saprophytic,[13] as well as nematophagous.
Human pathogenicity
Purpureocillium lilacinum is an infrequent cause of human disease.[14][15] Most reported cases involve patients with compromised immune systems, indwelling foreign devices, or intraocular lens implants.[16][17] Research of the last decade suggests it may be an emerging pathogen of both immunocompromised[18] as well as immunocompetent adults.[19]
Biocontrol agent
Plant-parasitic nematodes cause significant economic losses to a wide variety of crops. Chemical control is a widely used option for plant-parasitic nematode management. However, chemical nematicides are now being reappraised in respect of environmental hazard, high costs, limited availability in many developing countries or their diminished effectiveness following repeated applications.
Control of plant-parasitic nematodes
Purpureocillium lilacinum was first observed in association with nematode eggs in 1966[20] and the fungus was subsequently found parasitising the eggs of Meloidogyne incognita in Peru.[21] It has now been isolated from many cyst and root-knot nematodes and from soil in many locations.[22][23] Several successful field trials using P. lilacinum against pest nematodes were conducted in Peru.[21] The Peruvian isolate was then sent to nematologists in 46 countries for testing, as part of the International Meloidogyne project, resulting in many more field trials on a range of crops in many soil types and climates.[24] Field trials, glasshouse trials and in vitro testing of P. lilacinum continues and more isolates have been collected from soil, nematodes and occasionally from insects. Isolates vary in their pathogenicity to plant-parasitic nematodes. Some isolates are aggressive parasites while other, though morphologically indistinguishable, are less or non-pathogenic. Sometimes isolates that looked promising in vitro or in glasshouse trials have failed to provide control in the field.[25]
Many enzymes produced by P. lilacinum have been studied. A basic serine protease with biological activity against Meloidogyne hapla eggs has been identified.[26] One strain of P. lilacinum has been shown to produce proteases and a chitinase, enzymes that could weaken a nematode egg shell so as to enable a narrow infection peg to push through.[27]
Egg infection
Before infecting a nematode egg, P. lilacinum flattens against the egg surface and becomes closely appressed to it. P. lilacinum produces simple appressoria anywhere on the nematode egg shell either after a few hyphae grow along the egg surface, or after a network of hyphae form on the egg. The presence of appressoria appears to indicate that the egg is, or is about to be, infected. In either case, the appressorium appears the same, as a simple swelling at the end of a hypha, closely appressed to the eggshell. Adhesion between the appressorium and nematode egg surface must be strong enough to withstand the opposing force produced by the extending tip of a penetration hypha.[28] When the hypha has penetrated the egg, it rapidly destroys the juvenile within, before growing out of the now empty egg shell to produce conidiophores and to grow towards adjacent eggs.
Paecilotoxin is a mycotoxin isolated from the fungus.[29] Its significance is unknown. Khan et al. (2003) tested one strain of P. lilacinum for the production of paecilotoxin and were unable to show toxin production in that strain, suggesting that toxin synthesis may vary among isolates.[30][31]
- ^ a b (Thom) Samson 1974"Paecilomyces lilacinus". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2011-07-17.
- ^ Domsch KH, Gams W, Anderson T-H, ed. (2007). Compendium of Soil Fungi (2nd ed.). Lubrecht & Cramer Ltd. p. 322.
- ^ a b c Samson RA. (1974). "Paecilomyces and some allied hyphomycetes". Studies in Mycology (Baarn: Centralbureau voor Schimmelcultures) 6: 58.
- ^ Anderson T-H, Domsch KH, Gams W. (1995). Compendium of Soil Fungi. Lubrecht & Cramer Ltd.
- ^ Thom C. (1910). Bulletin of the Bureau of Animal Industry US Department of Agriculture 118: 73.
- ^ a b Inglis PW, Tigano MS. (2006). spp. (Ascomycota) isolates using rDNA-ITS Sequences"Paecilomyces"Identification and taxonomy of some entomopathogenic (PDF). Genetics and Molecular Biology 29 (1): 132–6.
- ^ Sung G-H, Hywel-Jones NL, Sung J-M, Luangsa-ard JJ, Shrestha B, Spatafora JW. (2007). and the clavicipitaceous fungi"Cordyceps"Phylogenetic classification of . Studies in Mycology 57 (1): 5–59.
- ^ Luangsa-Ard J, Houbraken J, van Doorn T, Hong SB, Borman AM, Hywel-Jones NL, Samson RA. (2011). "Purpureocillium, a new genus for the medically important Paecilomyces lilacinus". FEMS Microbiology Letters 321 (2): 141–9.
- ^ Rombach MC, Aguda RM, Shepard BM Roberts DW. (1986). "Infection of rice brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens (Homoptera: Delphacidae), by field application of entomopathogenic hyphomycetes (Deuteromycotina)". Environmental Entomology 15 (5): 1070–3.
- ^ Marti GA, Lastra CC, Pelizza SA, García JJ. (2006). "Isolation of Paecilomyces lilacinus (Thom) Samson (Ascomycota: Hypocreales) from the Chagas disease vector, Triatoma infestans Klug (Hemiptera: Reduviidae) in an endemic area in Argentina". Mycopathologia 162 (5): 369–72.
- ^ Fiedler Ż, Sosnowska D. (2007). "Nematophagous fungus Paecilomyces lilacinus (Thom) Samson is also a biological agent for control of greenhouse insects and mite pests". BioControl 52 (4): 547–8.
- ^ Gupta SC, Leathers TD, Wicklow DT. (1993). "Aspergillus flavus cultured on sclerotia of Paecilomyces lilacinus"Hydrolytic enzymes secreted by (PDF). Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 39 (1): 99–103.
- ^ Tigrano-Milani MS, Carneiro RG, de Faria MR, Frazão HS, McCoy CW. (1995). "Isozyme characterization and pathogenicity of Paecilomyces fumosoroseus and P. lilacinus to Diabrotica speciosa (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) and Meloidogyne javanica (Nematoda: Tylenchidae)". Biological Control 5 (3): 378–82.
- ^ Saberhagen C, Klotz SA, Bartholomew W, Drews D, Dixon A. (1997). "Infection due to Paecilomyces lilacinus: a challenging clinical identification". Clinical and Infectious Diseases 25 (6): 1411–3.
- ^ Westenfeld F, Alston WK, Winn WC. (1996). in an immunocompetent host: case report and review"Paecilomyces lilacinus"Complicated soft tissue infection with prepatellar bursitis caused by . Journal of Clinical Microbiology 34 (6): 1559–62.
- ^ O'Day DM (1977). "Fungal endophthalmitis caused by Paecilomyces lilacinus after intraocular lens implantation". American Journal of Ophthalmology 83 (1): 130–1.
- ^ Pettit TH, Olson RJ, Foos RY, Martin WJ (1980). "Fungal endophthalmitis following intraocular lens implantation. A surgical epidemic". Archives of Ophthalmology 98 (6): 1025–39.
- ^ Safdar A. (2002). : rapid response to treatment with caspofungin and itraconazole"Paecilomyces lilacinus"Progressive cutaneous hyalohyphomycosis due to . Clinical and Infectious Diseases 34 (10): 1415–7.
- ^ Carey J, D'Amico R, Sutton DA, Rinaldi MG. Paecilomyces lilacinus vaginitis in an immunocompetent patient. Emerg Infect Dis [serial online] 2003 Sep
- ^ Lysek H. (1996). "Study of biology of geohelminths. II. The importance of some soil microorganisms for the viability of geohelminth eggs in the soil". Acta Universitatis Palackianae Olomucensis 40: 83–90.
- ^ a b Jatala P, Kaltenbach R, Bocangel M. (1979). "Biological control of Meloidogyne incognita acrita and Globodera pallida on potatoes". Journal of Nematology 11: 303.
- ^ Stirling, GR (1991). Biological Control of Plant Parasitic Nematodes. UK: CABI Publishing. p. 282.
- ^ Stirling GR, West LM. (1991). "Fungal parasites of root-knot nematode eggs from tropical and sub-tropical regions of Australia". Australasian Plant Pathology 20 (4): 149–54.
- ^ Jatala P. (1986). "Biological control of plant-parasitic nematodes". Annual Review of Phytopathology 24: 453–89.
- ^ Gomes Carniero RMD, Cayrol J. (1991). "Relationship between inoculum density of the nematophagous fungus Paecilomyces lilacinus and control of Meloidogyne arenaria on tomato". Revue Nématologique 14 (4): 629–34.
- ^ Bonants PJM, Fitters PFL, Thijs H, den Belder E, Waalwijk C, Henfling JWDM. (1995). "A basic serine protease from Paecilomyces lilacinus with biological activity against Meloidogyne hapla eggs". Microbiology 141 (Pt 4): 775–84.
- ^ Khan A, Williams KL, and Nevalainen HKM. (2004). "Effects of Paecilomyces lilacinus protease and chitinase on the eggshell structures and hatching of Meloidogyne javanica juveniles". Biological Control 31 (3): 346–52.
- ^ Money NP. (1998). Molecular genetics of host-specific toxins in plant disease. Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 261–71.
- ^ Mikami Y, Yazawa K, Fukushima K, Arai T, Udagawa S, Samson RA. "Paecilotoxin production in clinical or terrestrial isolates of Paecilomyces lilacinus strains". Mycopathologia 108 (3): 195–9.
- ^ Khan A, Williams K, Nevalainen H. (2003). 251 for paecilotoxin production"Paecilomyces lilacinus"Testing the nematophagous bioloigcal control strain (PDF). FEMS Microbiology Letters 227 (1): 107–11.
- ^ Park J-O, Hargreaves JR, McConville EJ, Stirling GR, Ghisalberti EL. (2004). (Thom) Samson"Paecilomyces lilacinus"Production of leucinostatins and nematicidal activity of Australian isolates of (PDF). Letters in Applied Microbiology 38: 271–6.


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Loreto College Cavan Student's Council acts as a voice for the students in the school. The council seeks to provide a line of communication between students, management, staff and parents representing the views of the student body on matters of concern to them.
Each year group elects representatives to the Council. The Student's Council drew up a new constitution in 2009/2010 and elects its own committee consisting of Chairperson, Secretary, Treasurer, Public Relations Officer and other officers. The Student's Council undertakes a wide range of activities, which benefit the whole school community.
The role of the Student's Council is continually evolving within the school and will continue to play a significant role.
The principal reasons for the Student Council are:
- To promote a good working relationship between teachers and students.
- To promote the general welfare of the school and the community.
- To develop leadership qualities and organisational skills within the membership.
- To provide a forum for students to voice their opinions on issues that are relevant to them, giving them the experience of being involved in a consultative, democratic process.
- To promote and encourage a greater school spirit.
- To raise awareness and take an active role in school and extra-curricular activities. This may include the organisation of fund-raising initiatives.
- To encourage a positive involvement of all students in the life of the school.
- To discuss any aspect of school business which involves the students, with the exception of any uncomplimentary mention of any member of staff or management or student by name or implication.


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Altrincham 0 Gloucester City 1 (7th Jan 2017)
It may sound weird to say it, but it wasn't really the lure of watching a cup tie at Old Trafford that tempted me to venture up to Greater Manchester. It was the fact that with a speedy exit from Old Trafford, I could dash down to the tram stop and catch a tram to Altrincham, to Moss Lane, home of Altrincham FC.
And I wasn't the only one either. Crowded onto the tram, I couldn't help but notice a German fan nearby putting "Altrincham FC" into German Google on his phone, and checking the route.
There may have been 75,000 fewer fans at Moss Lane, and no half 'n' half scarves commemorating this historic Vanarama North clash, but it's the sort of "proper" old-style game I like going to when I travel away in England these days. No tourists – well, I guess you could count me… and the German guy – and no airs and graces to the surroundings. A good honest club where the red and white on show seemed to be exclusively for "Alty", rather than that other club a few miles up the road.
Moss Lane is one of those quirky grounds, every side different, that has buckets of character. A decent home end with a low roof is full of dark corners, and is easy to imagine being a fun place in Altrincham's better years, although understandably a little emptier and quieter during the club's current troubles.
Down the side, mainly covered, you can't fail to notice the average age of the terrace regular has leaped up by about 20 years. It would definitely be a place to hear a few grumbles and the odd less than polite pithy comment to opposition players. In the middle section of this terrace is a tv gantry, held up by a forest of scaffolding poles, rendering the whole area unusable.
While awkward, that shouldn't be an issue, with a fair-sized open terrace behind the far goal providing a fine view of the ground. What it doesn't do though is provide any cover, which is a slight problem on a typically Manchester-like drizzly afternoon, but not enough to deter many hardy folk from using it as a vantage point.
The other side contains the fairly well proportioned main stand, flanked by a small stand on one side and a clubhouse on the other. Shutters cover the clubhouse windows during the game, making it look like a closed retail unit – all thanks to the stupid rule, devoid of any common sense, that says people aren't allowed to have a beer within sight of the pitch.
Some might unkindly suggest that in the clubhouse with the shutters down would be the best place to watch Altrincham this season, as they are having something of a nightmare. At the end of this, their 23rd games of the season, they'd still only have 8 points. Their one solitary win was away at Stalybridge Celtic three months ago. Their twelve home games have yielded just two points, the last of which was way back on the 6th of September. This would be their 7th consecutive home league defeat.
Yet, on Saturday's showing, they didn't actually look too bad. They weren't fantastic, but they certainly didn't look a team 16 points from safety already. In fact I'd say they had most of the play and for much of the game looked the more likely team to score. Scoring has been something of an issue though, and few of the shots they did have were too convincing.
Whatever problems have befallen the club to cause this slide – they were in the Vanarama National last season after all – the fans seemed to be either loyally supportive or just resigned to their fate. Grumbles yes, but no anger. They certainly could fault the team for effort.
Gloucester had gone ahead after half an hour, the scorer knee-sliding away to celebrate, but had annoyed many with a range of time-wasting antics in the 2nd half. They allowed their hosts extra impetus late on with a player getting a 2nd booking and the subsequent red card, but although Altrincham threw everything they could at the Gloucester goal, they weren't throwing it with much accuracy. Altrincham's football was the play of a team desperately wanting to score, but not really having the belief they were going to do so.
It finished, frustratingly, with Altrincham struggling to even get the ball out of their own half for much of the closing stages, before the whistle signalled home defeat number ten. Arrangements were made for meeting in pubs later and/or seeing people back here next week, before trudging off into the dark evening gloom. Moss Lane might not have the glamour of a day at Old Trafford, but is has heart, and that counts for a lot.


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The Girl and I knew that if we were going to take a trip to coastal Maine, at least one lighthouse had to be on the to-do list. We decided on Head Light in Cape Elizabeth.
The town owns and operates Head Light now. There is a little museum and gift shop attached, but they were closed for the season. Fort Williams Park is right next to the light house, so if you go, you can check out the light house and then take a hike, stroll, trippy trop {whatever floats your boat} through the 90 acre park. I imagine in the summer it would be a great place to have a picnic.
The construction of the lighthouse began in 1787 with just $750 start-up. The U.S. government took over the management of all lighthouses in 1790 and allotted an addition $1500 for it to be completed. I'm sure that was a ton of money back then.
There are actually two towers, but only the Eastern tower is still active. The other tower was sold to a private party in the 1970's. Um, how cool would it be to live in a lighthouse?! Seriously, there are a million different ways to live life, and I am pretty sure I want to try at least 250,000 of them before I die. I wonder if the HH would let me add buy, renovate, and live in a lighthouse on the East coast? Somehow, I think it would be a tough sell.
Though the city has owned the lighthouse since 1990, the U.S. Coast Guard manages the foghorn and lights.
Maine. I LOVE YOU!!!!!
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Though Lynch uses flanken for this dish, we prefer the look of regular short ribs.You can often find flanken as well as short ribs at your local supermarket. Both are from the flavorful chuck, or shoulder, portion of a steer; the former are a three-rib portion of short ribs cut through the bone and the latter are ribs cut between the bones.
- Yield
- Makes 8 servings
- 8 (5- to 6-inch-long) meaty short ribs (5 pounds total)
- 1 1/2 teaspoons kosher salt
- 1/2 teaspoon black pepper
- 2 tablespoons olive oil
- 1 large onion, coarsely chopped
- 2 medium carrots, coarsely chopped
- 3 celery ribs, coarsely chopped
- 1/2 cup tomato paste (5 ounces)
- 2 cups dry red wine
- 1/2 cup red-wine vinegar
- 1 quartt beef stock (not canned broth) or reconstituted beef-veal demiglace concentrate
- 2 cups water
- 2 fresh thyme sprigs
- 1 Turkish or 1/2 California bay leaf
- 1/4 pound total smoked slab bacon, cut crosswise into 1/4-inch-thick slices, then slices cut into matchsticks (lardons)
- 6 baby turnips (1/4 pound total total), trimmed and quartered lengthwise
- 16 baby carrots (1/2 pound total total; not from a bag), peeled, keeping 1/2 inch of stem intact, and halved lengthwise if large
- 1/4 pound total butternut squash, peeled, seeded, and cut into 1/4-inch dice (3/4 cup)
- Put oven rack in middle position and preheat oven to 325°F.
- Pat ribs dry and sprinkle with kosher salt and pepper. Heat oil in a wide 6- to 8-quart heavy pot over moderately high heat just until smoking, then brown ribs in batches, without crowding, turning with tongs, about 6 minutes per batch. Transfer to a plate.
- Reduce heat to moderate, then cook onion, chopped carrots, and celery in fat remaining in pot, stirring occasionally, until softened and lightly browned on edges, about 7 minutes.
- Stir in tomato paste, wine, and vinegar and boil over high heat, uncovered, until liquid is reduced by about half, about 5 minutes. Add stock, water, thyme, and bay leaf and bring to a boil. Add ribs along with any juices accumulated on plate.
- Cover pot tightly, then transfer to oven and braise ribs until meat is very tender, 2 1/2 to 3 hours.
- Transfer ribs to a platter and discard bones, then let meat stand, loosely covered with a sheet of parchment paper or foil. Pour cooking liquid through a fine-mesh sieve into a bowl (do not press on solids) and discard solids. Let cooking liquid stand, uncovered, until fat rises to surface, about 15 minutes, then skim fat.
- While cooking liquid stands, cook lardons in cleaned pot over moderate heat, stirring occasionally, until golden and crisp, about 7 minutes, then transfer with a slotted spoon to paper towels to drain. Pour off bacon fat from pot, then add short rib cooking liquid and lardons to pot. Slowly boil, uncovered, stirring occasionally, until sauce is reduced to about 2 cups, about 15 minutes. Season with salt and pepper.
- While sauce reduces, boil turnips, baby carrots, and squash separately in a 2- to 3-quart saucepan of boiling salted water , uncovered, until just tender, about 5 minutes for turnips, 6 minutes for carrots, and 6 minutes for squash, transferring each vegetable as cooked with slotted spoon to a bowl of ice and cold water to stop cooking. Drain vegetables and pat dry.
- Trim fat and connective tissue from meat, then gently transfer meat (be careful not to break up ribs) and vegetables to sauce and cook over moderate heat, uncovered, until just heated through.
- Divide meat and sauce among 8 soup plates, then top with vegetables.
Cooks' note:
Short ribs (without baby vegetables) can be braised 2 days ahead and cooled completely in cooking liquid, uncovered, then chilled, covered. Reheat on stovetop before proceeding with recipe.
Related Video
Nutritional Info
- Calories5576
- Carbohydrates14 g(5%)
- Fat511 g(786%)
- Protein205 g(409%)
- Saturated Fat221 g(1106%)
- Sodium1519 mg(63%)
- Polyunsaturated Fat19 g
- Fiber3 g(13%)
- Monounsaturated Fat232 g
- Cholesterol1065 mg(355%)


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Well… I almost applied to go to Mars today. Okay, not really, but the idea really is amazing! (You can apply here: http://applicants.mars-one.com/) Imagine being the first person to explore an entire new world. There was Columbus and Magellan and Darwin—people who made historic discoveries… and now there can be Bob from the check-out line at the supermarket! In all seriousness though, who doesn't dream of being an explorer as a little kid? Now, a few lucky people potentially get to be the ultimate explorers.
Of course, who knows if they can even actually reach Mars alive… Apparently, radiation in space is a very big problem for long-term travel. There are a lot of these little things that the average person doesn't think about because we all know about Star Wars and Star Trek and they make it look so easy to travel in space. Luckily though, we already know of a shield (outside of science fiction) that deflects and dissipates radiation! The Earth's magnetic sphere does exactly that and it looks like scientists are close to replicating it on a small scale. Nature is a pretty intelligent thing—who knew? http://www.cnn.com/2013/06/27/world/europe/star-trek-shield


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It's been almost a year now since I left my job and embraced full-time motherhood. The past year had its ups and downs for both my husband and myself, with the ups in being just having ALL the time in our hands to enjoy our little boy. We did things we simply would not be able to do had we not left our jobs back in New Jersey (move to Arizona, travel to the Philippines and stay for two-and-a-half months, have mini getaways in between).
The downside of our super extended vacation, or now more aptly, staycation, is that we've had to put one of our biggest (if not THE biggest) dreams on hold, and that is buying our own home. For the past year we've been living at my parents', enjoying the comforts of having Miguel's grandparents in the same house, uncles and aunties nearby (if not also in the same house), and re-strengthening family bonds that got weakened by the distance of living in two different (and VERY FAR from each other) states. On the plus side, we've managed to live comfortably by having one-third less finances than we used to have back in Jersey, with no rent and utilities to pay for aside from what we are contributing to my parents now monthly to help with the upkeep of the house.
But Terrence and I are slowly but surely wanting our lives back. Not necessarily the life before parenthood and Miguel. It's more the life of having one's own place…the life where you get to buy practical goods and unnecessary stuff for your home, decorate every room to your liking, and have a place for everything you own. The life where you get to be free to move about–no holds barred–and dictate the rules (and non-rules) of your own castle. The life of being grown-ups.
My parents have been more than welcoming and supportive to the three of us the past year. In many ways our move came at the right time, as we were able to help each other out in the brutal economy of 2010. But now that (almost) a year has passed since our move, it's time to think about that dream again.
Here are my goals on how to achieve IT…
GOAL #1: Get my real estate license. As cook-y as it sounds, with the housing market being the way it is (or WAS), this has been in the back of my mind ever since BEFORE we moved to Arizona. My dad is a real estate agent, and he has the ability to work from home AND make as little or as much money as he wants. As a Mom, those two factors alone are motivating enough for me. I like the idea of being able to stay at home and be near Miguel while I work, and also not have to work for anyone else but my clients.
GOAL #2: Get driving. Close family and friends know this: I am terrified of driving. I've blamed it for many years on my parents' lack of motivation to push me to drive when I got my driving permit back in high school, their over-protectiveness winning over encouraging me to be a master of this life skill (because think about it really…you can't do anything if you don't drive). And then there was this accident I was in eons ago. With an ex. It wasn't terrible in the larger scheme of things. The car that hit us got the bulk of the damage. But it could have been a LOT worse…with the vehicle we were in ending up on the other side of the road, facing on-coming traffic. In my young(er) years I got lucky enough having my Dad (and a total of three boyfriends…lucky #3 of whom became my husband) willing to drive me around wherever I needed to go. Having always lived near where there was public transportation also helped–because knowing how to get around using public transportation is also a life skill, and would I be doomed if I didn't know how to ride the trains, buses and subways in the NYC metro area? Yup, probably.
Goal #3: Get us our first home! This would only be possible, of course, once I achieve Goals #1 and #2. Obviously I have to work hard at being either a real estate agent or a property manager (or both). And obviously I would need to drive. Because what's the sense in getting a real estate license if I can't even drive myself and my clients around?? (For the record, I have a driver's license. I DO know how to drive. I just don't like to.)
Goal #3 would also not be possible, of course, without Terrence's help. Our plan for the immediate six months is for him to be the full-time stay-at-home parent, while I work on getting my foot in the real estate door. He would continue to look for possible full-time/part-time jobs out there whenever he can, but our priority for him would be taking care of little Miggz while I become (oh yeah!) the breadwinner (which I'm sure they would just be both thrilled about).
So there…my THREE goals for the rest of the year. Sounds easy-peazy-lemon-squeazy, doesn't it? (Yeah right.)
Meanwhile, I've been curbing my cravings for interior decorating for quite a while. So I instead started a scrapbook with plans for our future home.
I know it will be a challenge (even a long shot) to get there, especially achieving Goal #3. But I have FAITH (and a whole lot of secret super skills) that I know will get us there.


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MA Advisement Center
As you probably know, the Urban Affairs Master of Arts degree requires that you complete 30 credits or 10 three-credit courses. These include four required courses that you should take as early in your studies as possible. The required courses are:
- URBST 705 – Social Justice in Theory and Practice
- Two of the three of: URBST 718 – Governing the City, URBST 724 – Public Policy in Practice, and URBST 706 – Non-Profits in the 21st Century Metropolis
- One of the three of: URBST 725 – Urban Research Methods, URBST 732 – Researching New York City, or URBST 751 – Critical Perspectives in Urban Research
Students may also be required to take URBST 620 – Urban Research Writing, at the recommendation of the MA Program faculty. This recommendation will be based upon your performance in URBST 705, and is available to all students as an elective. Students taking URBST 620 should do so in the Spring of their first year.
The remaining courses are electives, which you can take based upon your interest in their subject matter.
If you are taking URBST 620, you may want to delay URBST 724 until the following semester, since it will require completion of a major research paper.
For a full list of the requirements to complete the MA in Urban Affairs, click here.
Each term you should check in with the MA Advisor about courses, opportunities and general information.
Remember: In order to graduate, you must have an overall "B" or 3.00 average or better. You are not required to prepare a Master's Thesis, though you may choose to do so, under the direction of a faculty member. Otherwise, during the semester before you plan to graduate, you must submit for review a final project.
Prof. Do Lee, MA Advisor
Department of Urban Studies
William Muraskin, Ph.D.
Admissions Advisor
MA in Urban Affairs


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Local Space is an innovative and dynamic social landlord with charitable status that is dedicated to delivering affordable and quality social housing to people on lower incomes, to help them improve their quality of life. This is an exciting time for us as we progress our development ambitions to acquire 800 homes by 2020 – this is significant growth in the number of homes we own. At the heart of this is our desire to develop a culture of employee engagement and high performance that reflects our values in the services we provide.
We are an Investors in People (IIP) organisation and reaccredited against the 6th generation IIP standard, achieving Silver status in March 2019. The new standard provides a deeper assessment on how organisations are doing as people orientated organisations that can successfully deliver against their objectives.
We are commited to equality and diversity in valuing our staff, tenants and residents, and work hard to create a friendly and responsive working environment.


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Inez Bootezgel from Healthwatch came to see the group. We have met with Inez before and she has been great coming along to consult with our group.
Inez told us that our health and our care are important. Health services are things like:
– Doctors
– Nurses
– Hospital
– Ambulances
– Opticians
– Dentists
Care services are things like care homes and care workers.
– Healthwatch is there to:
– Help us all to understand what our health and care choices are
– To listen to what you have to say about your health and care
The group wanted to know why there were no people with a learning disability on the different groups and boards. Inez said that she would help us to find out. Inez said that she would help us to meet with Dave Antroboss. He is "lay member" of the Clinical Commissioning Group (CCG) who decides what services the CCG should buy. Inez said he would be able to answer our questions.
Inez told us how important it was to speak up about any services we receive and we can always speak to her.
Health and care services are there to help us stay well, look after us when we are sick and help us to stay safe.
We thanked Inez for coming and for a great meeting.» Back to News


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This is a paid-for submitted press release. CCN does not endorse, nor is responsible for any material included below and isn't responsible for any damages or losses connected with any products or services mentioned in the press release. CCN urges readers to conduct their own research with due diligence into the company, product or service mentioned in the press release.
The much anticipated, all new Oju X exchange has been officially released for its first operational phase, and developed as a unique cryptocurrency platform, which will expand to redefine what can be achieved within an integrated exchange, phone App and wallet system.
Oju Group founder, Wu Di explained: "Oju X is about 'U': Unique, Useful and Universal, putting 'U' (You) in control. Unique, meaning we develop secure, self-reliant proprietary technologies which do not rely on outside or third parties. Useful, because our goal is to create a hassle-free, user-friendly exchange with multiple functionality, and Universal, as we aim to make Oju X, and other technologies, accessible to everyone, whether they have a bank account or not."
Other unique features will include a daily exchange rate for OjuT, its cryptocurrency, relative to US$, which will be updated every 24 hours. The algorithm, THE X Formula, determining the daily price of OjuT on this exchange, will include but not limited to the trading volume, online/offline demand and supply, and number of OjuT in circulation, relative to US$, thus helping to avoid some of the extremes driven by intra-day/short-term volatility within the general cryptocurrency exchanges.
The Secret of the 'X' Formula represents the ultimate mathematical algorithm for determining real free-market trading dynamics, and was devised to help Oju X trading platform lead the world into a post-manipulative era, shaping a trust-less economic future for humanity in the years to come.
Oju X is built on IVN technology, a totally new, self-developed, encryption system of utmost security, linked to both your personal email, and a built-in proprietary two factor authentication device, making the platform intuitive as well as simple to use.
Following on from this first phase launch of Oju X, other exceptional features are already being developed, in tandem with the phone App, to create a full-fledged portal with many other channels which will completely change the way people currently think about cryptocurrency usage and exchange trade practices.
To keep up with the latest news and announcements from Oju Group, Oju X exchange, OjuT – THE Travel Coin and more, register an account via the website: https://ojux.io or follow Telegram Channel: https://t.me/oju_x.


text: 4/4/17 WORD OF THE WEEK Desipience – Foolishness or silliness TAX HELP There are still some open slots for free tax help and electronic filing tomorrow April 5th from 10 AM to 4 PM. These individual sessions, lasting about an hour, will be conducted by volunteers from the New York State Tax Department. Please see our website for details and requirements. EGG DYEING Join us this Thursday at 5 PM. We'll start off with a nature walk around the park (weather permitting.) Indoors we'll learn how to dye hard-boiled eggs with natural materials and use the leaves we've collected to create silhouettes on the shells. Tags: Word of the WeekTax HelpNatural Egg DyeingNational Library WeekBook TastingLibrary Amnesty weekFabric FlowersSeed SavingMovie NightFamily Book ClubNinja Egg HuntSocial Hour


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Robert Bellarmine was one of the most original and influential political theorists of his time. His writings present coherent definitions of the nature and aim of temporal authority and its relationship to spiritual authority.
The Origin of the Distinction of Ranks is one of the major products of the Scottish Enlightenment and a masterpiece of jurisprudence and social theory. Drawing on Adam Smith's four-stages theory of history and the natural law's traditional division of domestic duties into those toward servants, children, and women, Millar provides a rich historical analysis of the ways in which progressive economic change transforms the nature of authority.
In this new, dual-language edition, Hutcheson's Latin Philosophiae Moralis Institutio Compendiaria is presented on facing pages with its English translation, A Short Introduction to Moral Philosophy, together with all the relevant alterations of the 1745 edition relating to the 1742 edition of the Institutio, including all the omissions and additions by the translator in the Short Introduction.
Philosophical Commentary deals with church and state, religious toleration, legal enforcement of religious practices, and religiously motivated violence.
Samuel Pufendorf's The Present State of Germany was first published in 1667 (under the pseudonym Severinus de Monzambano) and immediately became one of the most notorious works in Europe for the next half century. Its trenchant critique of previous theories of the Holy Roman Empire elicited both attacks and defenses, and it also anticipated many elements in Pufendorf's subsequent writings on natural law, history, and religion.
Henry Home, Lord Kames, was the complete "Enlightenment man," concerned with the full spectrum of human knowledge and its social use. However, as a lawyer and, after 1752, as a judge on the Court of Session in Edinburgh, he made many of his most distinctive contributions through his works on the nature of law and legal development.
The Principles of Moral and Christian Philosophy presents the first masterpiece of Scottish Common Sense philosophy. This two-volume treatise is important for its wide range of insights about the nature of the human mind, the foundations of morals, and the relationship between morality and religion.
Born in 1694, Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui helped transform the modern tradition of natural law and convey it to new generations.
Since the nineteenth century, Hugo Grotius's Rights of War and Peace has been the classic work in modern international law, laying the foundation for a universal code of law.
Francisco Suárez (1548–1617) was the greatest metaphysician and moral theorist of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century scholasticism. Suárez is of particular importance as a theorist of natural law and of rights, for his work combines expertise in moral theory with a mastery of civil and ecclesiastical jurisprudence and a sophisticated theory of the human person.
Divided into three books, Kames's Sketches of the History of Man draws together the concerns of many of his earlier works. The first book considers man in the private sphere, while the second explores man in the public sphere. The final book is an account of progress in the sciences of logic, morals, and theology. Throughout the entire work, Kames expounds on his fundamental hypothesis that, at the beginning of the history of the human race, savagery was ubiquitous and that the human story is one of an emergence out of barbarism and toward maturity.
A Treatise of the Laws of Nature, originally titled De Legibus Naturae, first appeared in 1672 as a theoretical response to a range of issues that came together during the late 1660s. It conveyed a conviction that science might offer a more effective means of demonstrating both the contents and the obligatory force of the law of nature.


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in Communication & Media, Photography, Fidalgo Island Rotary Club
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in Real Estate Services, Banking, Investment Services, Wealth Management
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in Financial Planning, Estate Management, Investment Services, Wealth Management, Semiahmoo Rotary Club
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in Photography, Bellingham Bay Rotary Club
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in Health and Medicine, Everett Rotary Club, Optometry, Eye Care
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in Photography, Langley Central Rotary Club
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in Online Marketing, Abbotsford Rotary Club, Internet advertising
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Please visit our Open House at 333 KEARY ST in New Westminster.
Open House on Sunday, September 9, 2012 2:00 pm - 4:00 pm
Power packed 1 year old, No HST, IN NEW "Brewery District" area. Near skytrain, Royal Columbian Hospital, Sapperton Park and new Thrifty's. 3 level home full of features. Legal 1 bedroom self contained suites and double garage on ground level. Main boasts gorgeous open design kitchen, island, granite counter tops, bid eating area, bright great room, gs f/p and master bedroom with full ensuite. Don't forget the lovely 2 piece bathroom also on main. Upstairs is another full bathroom, 2 more bedrooms and laundry. Mix of h/w flooring, tile, carpet, crown moldings, and designer colors throughout. Nice decks off great room, and kitchen. Fenced yard. Still lots of warranty by National Home Warranty. Open House Sunday September 9th 2-4pm


text: This is where I wish mnesia had compound key indexes. My suggestion is pretty simple. Add another attribute for the key and use that: -record(time_parameter, {key, time, parameter, value}). create_tables() -> mnesia:create_table(time_parameter,[{type, set}, {disc_only_copies, [node()]}, {attributes, record_info(fields, time_parameter)}]). make_key(#time_parameter{time=T, parameter=P}) -> {T, P}. add_sample(V) -> V2 = V#time_parameter{ key = make_key(V) }, mensia:write(V2). Then match becomes: dirty_para_request(Parameter, StartTime, EndTime) -> Sel = [{#time_parameter{parameter=Parameter, key='$1', value='_'}, [{'<',{const,{StartTime,Parameter}},'$1'}, {'=<','$1',{const,{EndTime,Parameter}}}], ['$_']}], mnesia:dirty_select(time_parameter, Sel). Hopefully this will make mnesia use a key range scan. But note the above is untested. :) I'm basing this on the fact that tuples are sortable. However because other parameters can exist for a given time value, I am still filtering on the parameter attribute during the dirty_select. Insert performance is going to slow down as Mnesia must validate if the tuple is already in the table or not. Mnesia simply may not be the best database for your application. You might find other solutions based off pure dets, the gridfile contrib or a SQL database to give you higher performance. Jouni Ryn? <Jouni.Ryno@REDACTED> wrote: > Dear all > > Just wondering, what one should do: > > My data contains irregularly (in time) taken measurements. At a time > there can be anything from 1 to 30 something measurements. > > So the first logical start is to define > -record(time_parameter, {time, parameter, value}). > > then to define mnesia table like this > mnesia:create_table(time_parameter,[{type, bag}, > {disc_only_copies, [node()]}, > {attributes, record_info(fields, time_parameter)}] > > Now each time key can contain several parameters. But as there can be > thousands of measurements per day, the DB-files will > become really large. A weeks data took about 800 MBytes ... > > No problem with the disc space, but with the searching of the data (for > correlating data with the housekeeping parameters). Searching for random > parameter for a certain time interval > > dirty_para_request(Parameter, StartTime, EndTime) -> > Sel = [{#time_parameter{parameter=Parameter, > time='$1', value='_'}, > [{'<',{const,StartTime},'$1'},{'=<','$1',{const,EndTime}}], > ['$_']}], > mnesia:dirty_select(time_parameter, Sel). > > will now take about 4 minutes, as Mnesia has to scan trough the full DB. > Extrapolating this even for a years operation means, that one has to do > something else. > > So far the only thing I can think about, is to split the db-tables to > daily tables. Then first select the relevant tables by name (based on > the time) and make the search from those tables only. > > But are there any other solutions? -- Shawn.