text:
Coordinates: 34°07′25″N 35°39′04″E / 34.12361°N 35.65111°E
𐤐𐤕 / Pūt (Phoenician)
Phoiníkē (Greek)
Map of Phoenicia and its Mediterranean trade routes
|None;[2] dominant cities were Bybwos (2500–1000 BC) and Tyre (900–550 BC)[3]
|Common wanguages
|Phoenician, Punic
|Canaanite rewigion
|City-states ruwed by kings, wif varying degrees of owigarchic or pwutocratic ewements; owigarchic repubwic in Cardage after c. 480 BC[4]
|Weww-known kings of Phoenician cities
• c. 1000 BC
|Hiram I
|Pygmawion of Tyre
|Historicaw era
|Cwassicaw antiqwity
• Estabwished
• Cyrus de Great conqwers Phoenicia
|20,000 km2 (7,700 sq mi)
Phoenicia (/fəˈnɪʃə/;[5] from Ancient Greek: Φοινίκη, Phoiníkē) was an ancient Semitic-speaking dawassocratic civiwization dat originated in de Levant region of de eastern Mediterranean, specificawwy modern Lebanon.[6][7] It was concentrated awong de coast of Lebanon and incwuded some coastaw areas of Syria and nordern Israew, reaching as far norf as Arwad and as far souf as Acre and possibwy Gaza.[8][9][10] At its height between 1500 and 300 BC, Phoenician civiwization spread across de Mediterranean, from Cyprus to de Iberian Peninsuwa.
The term Phoenicia is an exonym originating from ancient Greek dat most wikewy described Tyrian purpwe, a major export of Canaanite port towns; it did not correspond precisewy to Phoenician cuwture or society as it wouwd have been understood nativewy.[11] Schowars dus debate wheder de Phoenicians were actuawwy a distinct civiwization from de Canaanites and oder residents of de Levant.[12][13]
The Phoenicians came to prominence fowwowing de cowwapse of most major cuwtures during de Late Bronze Age. They were renowned in antiqwity as adept merchants, expert seafarers, and intrepid expworers. They devewoped an expansive maritime trade network dat wasted over a miwwennium, becoming de dominant commerciaw power for much of cwassicaw antiqwity. Phoenician trade awso hewped faciwitate de exchange of cuwtures, ideas, and knowwedge between major cradwes of civiwization such as Greece, Egypt, and Mesopotamia. After its zenif in de ninf century BC, Phoenician civiwization in de eastern Mediterranean swowwy decwined in de face of foreign infwuence and conqwest, dough its presence wouwd remain in de centraw and western Mediterranean untiw de second century BC.
Phoenician civiwization was organized in city-states, simiwar to dose of ancient Greece, of which de most notabwe were Tyre, Sidon, Arwad, Berytus, Bybwos, and Cardage.[14][15] Each city-state was powiticawwy independent, and dere is no evidence de Phoenicians viewed demsewves as a singwe nationawity.[16] The Cardaginians, who descended from a Phoenician settwement in nordwest Africa, emerged as major civiwization in deir own right in de sevenf century BC. Their muwti-ednic empire, which maintained a strong Phoenician identity, spanned de western Mediterranean and chawwenged de Roman Repubwic. The destruction of Cardage by Rome at de concwusion of de Third Punic War in 146 BC marked de end of de wast major, independent Phoenician state.
Long considered a wost civiwization due to de wack of indigenous written records, academic and archaeowogicaw devewopments since de mid-20f century have reveawed de Phoenicians to be a compwex and infwuentiaw civiwization, uh-hah-hah-hah.[17] Their best known wegacy is de worwd's owdest verified awphabet, which dey transmitted across de Mediterranean worwd.[18][19] The Phoenician awphabet formed de basis of de Greek awphabet, which in turn was adopted for de Latin script, de worwd's dominant writing system. The Phoenicians are awso credited wif innovations in shipbuiwding, navigation, industry, agricuwture, and government. Their internationaw trade network is bewieved to have fostered de economic, powiticaw, and cuwturaw foundations of Western civiwization, uh-hah-hah-hah.[20]
The name Phoenicians, wike Latin Poenī (adj. poenicus, water pūnicus), comes from Greek Φοίνικες (Phoínikes). The word φοῖνιξ phoînix meant variabwy "Phoenician person", "Tyrian purpwe, crimson" or "date pawm" and is attested wif aww dree meanings awready by Homer.[21] (The mydicaw bird phoenix awso carries de same name, but dis meaning is not attested untiw centuries water.) The word may be derived from φοινός phoinós "bwood-red",[22] itsewf possibwy rewated to φόνος phónos "murder". It is difficuwt to ascertain which meaning came first, but it is understandabwe how Greeks may have associated de crimson or purpwe cowor of dates and dye wif de merchants who traded bof products.
Robert S. P. Beekes has suggested a pre-Greek origin of de ednonym.[23] The owdest attested form of de word in Greek may be de Mycenaean po-ni-ki-jo, po-ni-ki, possibwy borrowed from Ancient Egyptian: fnḫw[24] (witerawwy "carpenters", "woodcutters"; wikewy in reference to de famed Lebanon cedars for which de Phoenicians were weww-known), awdough dis derivation is disputed.[25] The fowk etymowogicaw association of Φοινίκη wif φοῖνιξ mirrors dat in Akkadian, which tied kinaḫni, kinaḫḫi "Canaan" to kinaḫḫu "red-dyed woow".[26][27]
The Greek word may awso be directwy from de Phoenicians' endonym; de wand was nativewy known as 𐤐𐤕 (Pūt) and its peopwe as de 𐤐𐤍𐤉𐤌 (Pōnnim).[28] In de Amarna wetters of de 14f century BC, peopwe from de region cawwed demsewves Kenaani or Kinaani, eqwivawent to Canaanite. The common Canaanite identity was graduawwy differentiated into regionaw subgroups, of which de Phoenicians were one, so dey continued to use Canaanite as one of deir sewf-designations.[28] Thus, much water, in de sixf century BC, Hecataeus of Miwetus writes dat Phoenicia was formerwy cawwed χνα khna, a name dat Phiwo of Bybwos water adopted into his mydowogy as his eponym for de Phoenicians: "Khna who was afterwards cawwed Phoinix".[29] The ednonym survived in Norf Africa untiw de fourf century AD (see Punic wanguage). As wate as de dird century, as mentioned by Augustine of Hippo, an African identified himsewf as Chanani. Conversewy, de names of de inhabitants of most prominent Phoenician cities Tyre and Sidon couwd sometimes awso be used to refer to Phoenicians in generaw, so dat for instance de sewf-designation Sorim Tyrians, was used in Tripowitania.[28]
Since wittwe has survived of Phoenician records or witerature, most of what is known about deir origins and history comes from de accounts of oder civiwizations and inferences from deir materiaw cuwture excavated droughout de Mediterranean, uh-hah-hah-hah.
Herodotus bewieved dat de Phoenicians originated from Bahrain,[30][31] a view shared centuries water by de historian Strabo.[32] This deory was accepted by de 19f-century German cwassicist Arnowd Heeren, who noted dat Greek geographers described "two iswands, named Tyrus or Tywos, and Aradus, which boasted dat dey were de moder country of de Phoenicians, and exhibited rewics of Phoenician tempwes."[33] The peopwe of modern Tyre in Lebanon, have particuwarwy wong maintained Persian Guwf origins, and de simiwarity in de words "Tywos" and "Tyre" has been commented upon, uh-hah-hah-hah.[34] The Diwmun civiwization drived in Bahrain during de period 2200–1600 BC, as shown by excavations of settwements and de Diwmun buriaw mounds. However, some schowars note dat dere is wittwe evidence Bahrain was occupied during de time when such migration had supposedwy taken pwace.[35]
The Phoenician's Semitic wanguage, awong wif evidence of an invasion at de site of Bybwos, suggest dey emerged from Semitic migrations to de Fertiwe Crescent between 2300 and 2100 BC By contrast, some schowars, such as Sabatino Moscati, bewieve de Phoenicians originated from an admixture of previous non-Semitic inhabitants wif de Semitic arrivaws. The Canaanite cuwture dat gave rise to de Phoenicians apparentwy devewoped in situ from de earwier Ghassuwian chawcowidic cuwture. Ghassuwian itsewf devewoped from de Circum-Arabian Nomadic Pastoraw Compwex, which in turn devewoped from a fusion of deir ancestraw Natufian and Harifian cuwtures wif Pre-Pottery Neowidic B (PPNB) farming cuwtures, practicing de domestication of animaws during de 6200 BC cwimatic crisis, which wed to de Neowidic Revowution in de Levant.[36] Bybwos is attested as an archaeowogicaw site from de Earwy Bronze Age. The Late Bronze Age state of Ugarit is considered qwintessentiawwy Canaanite archaeowogicawwy,[37] even dough de Ugaritic wanguage does not bewong to de Canaanite wanguages proper.[38][39]
Emergence during de Late Bronze Age (1550–1200 BC)[edit]
In de earwy 16f century BC, Egypt ejected foreign ruwers known as de Hyksos, a diverse group of peopwes from de Near East, and re-estabwished native dynastic ruwe under de New Kingdom. This precipitated Egypt's incursion into de Levant, wif a particuwar focus on Phoenicia; de first known account of de Phoenicians rewates to de conqwests of Thutmose III (1479–1425 BC). Coastaw cities such as Bybwos, Arwad, and Uwwasa were targeted for deir cruciaw geographic and commerciaw winks wif de interior (via de Nahr aw-Kabir and de Orontes rivers). The cities provided Egypt wif access to Mesopotamian trade as weww as abundant stocks of de region's native cedar wood, of which dere was no eqwivawent in de Egyptian homewand. Thutmose III reports stocking Phoenicians harbors wif timber for annuaw shipments, as weww as constructing ships for inwand trade drough de Euphrates River.[40]
According to de Amarna Letters, a series of correspondences between Egypt and Phoenicia from 1411 to 1358 BC, by de mid 14f century, most of Phoenicia, awong wif parts of de Levant, came under a "woosewy defined" Egyptian administrative framework. The Phoenician city states were considered "favored cities" to de Egyptians, hewping anchor Egypt's access to resources and trade. Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, and Bybwos were regarded as de most important. Though nominawwy under Egyptian ruwe, de Phoenicians had considerabwe autonomy and deir cities were fairwy weww devewoped and prosperous. They are described as having deir own estabwished dynasties, powiticaw assembwies, and merchant fweets, even engaging in powiticaw and commerciaw competition amongst demsewves. Bybwos was evidentwy de weading city outside Egypt proper, accounting for most of de Amarna communications. It was a major center of bronze-making, and de primary terminus of precious goods such as tin and wapis wazuwi from as far east as Afghanistan, uh-hah-hah-hah. Sidon and Tyre awso commanded interest among Egyptian officiaws, beginning a pattern of rivawry dat wouwd span de next miwwennium.
The economic dynamism of Egypt's Eighteenf Dynasty, particuwarwy under its ninf pharaoh, Amenhotep III (1391–1353 BC), brought furder prosperity and prominence to de Phoenician cities. There was growing demand for a wide array of goods, dough timber remained de principaw commodity: Egypt's expanding shipbuiwding industry and rapid construction of tempwes and estates were a driving force of de economy; cedar was de wood of choice for de coffins of de priestwy and upper cwass. Initiawwy dominated by Bybwos, virtuawwy every city had access to a variety of hardwood, wif de notabwe exception of Tyre. Every city saw an infwux of weawf and a more diversified economy dat incwuded woggers, artisans, traders, and saiwors.
Hittite intervention and Late Bronze Age cowwapse[edit]
The Amarna wetters report dat from 1350 to 1300 BC, neighboring Amorites and Hittites were capturing Phoenician cities, especiawwy in de norf. Egypt subseqwentwy wost its coastaw howdings from Ugarit in nordern Syria to Bybwos near centraw Lebanon, uh-hah-hah-hah. The soudern Phoenician cities appeared to have remained autonomous, dough under Seti I (1306–1290 BC) Egypt reaffirmed its controw.
Some time between 1200 and 1150 BC, de Late Bronze Age cowwapse severewy weakened or destroyed most civiwizations in de region, incwuding de Egyptians and Hittites.
Ascendance and high point (1200–800 BC)[edit]
The Phoenicians, now free from foreign domination and interference, appeared to have weadered de crisis rewativewy weww, emerging as a distinct and organized civiwization in 1230 BC, shortwy after de approximate transition to de Iron Age (c. 1200–500 BC). For de next severaw centuries, Phoenicia was prosperous, and de period is sometimes described as a "Phoenician renaissance."[41] They fiwwed de power vacuum caused by de Late Bronze Age cowwapse by becoming de sowe mercantiwe and maritime power in de region, a status dey wouwd maintain for de next severaw centuries.[42]
Bybwos and Sidon were de earwiest powers, dough de rewative prominence of Phoenician city states wouwd ebb and fwow droughout de miwwennium. Oder major cities were Tyre, Simyra, Arwad, and Berytus, aww of which appeared in de Amarna tabwets of de mid-second miwwennium BC. Bybwos was initiawwy de main point from which de Phoenicians dominated de Mediterranean and Red Sea routes. It was here dat de first inscription in de Phoenician awphabet was found, on de sarcophagus of King Ahiram (c. 850 BC).[43] Phoenicia's independent coastaw cities were ideawwy suited for trade between de Levant area, which was rich in naturaw resources, and de rest of de ancient worwd.
Earwy into de Iron Age, de Phoenicians estabwished ports, warehouses, markets, and settwement aww across de Mediterranean and up to de soudern Bwack Sea. Initiawwy wed by Tyre, cowonies were estabwished on Cyprus, Sardinia, de Bawearic Iswands, Siciwy, and Mawta, as weww as de fertiwe coasts of Norf Africa and de mineraw rich Iberian Peninsuwa. Though disputed, some schowars bewieve Cardage, which wouwd water emerge as a major power in de western Mediterranean, was founded during de reign of Pygmawion of Tyre (831–735 BC).[44] The Phoenician's compwex mercantiwe network supported what Fernand Braudew cawws an earwy exampwe of a "worwd-economy", described as "an economicawwy autonomous section of de pwanet abwe to provide for most of its own needs" due to winks and exchanges provided by de Phoenicians.[45]
A uniqwe concentration in Phoenicia of siwver hoards dated some time during its high point contains hacksiwver (used for currency) dat bears wead isotope ratios matching ores in Sardinia and Spain, uh-hah-hah-hah.[46] This metawwic evidence indicates de extent of Phoenician trade networks. It awso seems to confirm de Bibwicaw attestation of a western Mediterranean port city, Tarshish, suppwying King Sowomon of Israew wif siwver via Phoenicia.[47]
The first textuaw account of de Phoenicians during de Iron Age comes from Assyrian King Tigwaf-Piweser I, who recorded his campaign against de Phoenicians between 1114 and 1076 BC.[42] Seeking access to de Phoenician's high qwawity cedar wood, he describes exacting tribute from de weading cities at de time, Bybwos and Sidon, uh-hah-hah-hah. Roughwy a year water, de Egyptian priest, Wenamun describes his efforts to procure cedar wood for a rewigious tempwe from 1075 to 1060 BC.[48][Note 1] Contradicting de account of Tigwaf-Piweser I, Wenamun describes Bybwos and Sidon as impressive and powerfuw coastaw cities, which suggests dat de Assyrian siege was ineffectuaw. Awdough once vassaws of de Egyptians during de Bronze Age, de city states were now abwe to reject Wenamun's demand for tribute, instead forcing de Egyptians to agree to a commerciaw arrangement.[49] This indicates de extent to which de Phoenicians had become a more infwuentiaw and independent peopwe.
The cowwection of city states constituting Phoenicia came to be characterized by outsiders, and even de Phoenicians demsewves, by one of de dominant states at a given time. For many centuries, Phoenicians and Canaanites awike were awternativewy cawwed Sidonians or Tyrians. Throughout much of de 11f century BC, de bibwicaw books of Joshua, Judges, and Samuew use de term Sidonian to describe aww Phoenicians; by de tenf century BC, Tyre rose to become de richest and most powerfuw Phoenician city state, particuwarwy during de reign of Hiram I (c. 969–936 BC). Described in de Jewish Bibwe as a contemporary of kings David and Sowomon of Israew, he is best known for being commissioned to buiwd Sowomon's Tempwe, where de skiww and weawf of his city state is noted.[50] Overaww, de Owd Testament references Phoenician city states—namewy Sidon, Tyre, Arvad (Awad) and Bybwos—over 100 times, indicating de extent to which Tyrian and Phoenician cuwture was recognized.[51]
Indeed, de Phoenicians stood out from deir contemporaries in dat deir rise was rewativewy peacefuw. As archaeowogist James B. Pritchard notes, "They became de first to provide a wink between de cuwture of de ancient Near East and dat of de uncharted worwd of de West…They went not for conqwest as de Babywonians and Assyrians did, but for trade. Profit rader dan pwunder was deir powicy."[52] Pritchard observes dat even de Israewites, who were in confwict wif virtuawwy every neighboring cuwture, seemed to regard de Phoenicians as "respected neighbors wif whom Israew was abwe to maintain amicabwe dipwomatic and commerciaw rewations droughout a span of a hawf miwwennium … Yet despite de ideowogicaw differences between Israew and her nordern neighbors, detente prevaiwed."[51]
During de ruwe of de priest Idobaaw (887–856 BC), Tyre expanded its territory as far norf as Beirut (incorporating its erstwhiwe rivaw Sidon) and into part of Cyprus; dis unusuaw act of aggression was de cwosest de Phoenicians ever came to forming a unitary territoriaw state. Tewwingwy, once his reawm reached its greatest territoriaw extent, Idobaaw decwared himsewf "King of de Sidonians", a titwe dat wouwd be used by his successors and mentioned in bof Greek and Jewish accounts.[49]
Phoenician awphabet[edit]
During deir high point, specificawwy around 1050 BC,[39] de Phoenicians devewoped a script for writing Phoenician, a Nordern Semitic wanguage. They were among de first state-wevew societies to make extensive use of awphabets. The famiwy of Canaanite wanguages, spoken by Israewites, Phoenicians, Amorites, Ammonites, Moabites and Edomites, was de first historicawwy attested group of wanguages to use an awphabet to record deir writings, based on de Proto-Canaanite script. The Proto-Canaanite script, which is derived from Egyptian hierogwyphs, uses around 30 symbows but was not widewy used untiw de rise of new Semitic kingdoms in de 13f and 12f centuries BC.[53]
The Canaanite-Phoenician awphabet consists of 22 wetters, aww consonants.[19] It is bewieved to be one of de ancestors of modern awphabets.[54][55] Through deir maritime trade, de Phoenicians spread de use of de awphabet to Anatowia, Norf Africa, and Europe, where it wikewy served de purpose of communication and commerciaw rewations.[42] The awphabet was adopted by de Greeks, who devewoped it to have distinct wetters for vowews as weww as consonants.[56][57]
The name Phoenician is by convention given to inscriptions beginning around 1050 BC, because Phoenician, Hebrew, and oder Canaanite diawects were wargewy indistinguishabwe before dat time.[39][18] The so-cawwed Ahiram epitaph, engraved on de sarcophagus of King Ahiram from about 1000 BC, shows a fuwwy devewoped Phoenician script.[58][59][60]
Peak and graduaw decwine (900–586 BC)[edit]
The Late Iron Age saw de height of Phoenician shipping, mercantiwe, and cuwturaw activity, particuwarwy between 750 and 650 BC.[42] Phoenician infwuence was visibwe in de "Orientawization" of Greek cuwturaw and artistic conventions drough Egyptian and Near Eastern infwuences transmitted by de Phoenician, uh-hah-hah-hah. The infusion of various technowogicaw, scientific, and phiwosophicaw ideas from aww over de region waid de foundations for de emergence of cwassicaw Greece in de fiff century BC.[42]
The Phoenicians, awready weww known as peerwess mariners and traders, had awso devewoped a distinct and compwex cuwture. They wearned to manufacture bof common and wuxury goods, becoming "renowned in antiqwity for cwever trinkets mass produced for whowesawe consumption, uh-hah-hah-hah."[61] They were proficient in gwass-making, engraved and chased metawwork (incwuding bronze, iron, and gowd), ivory carving, and woodwork. Among deir most popuwar goods were fine textiwes, typicawwy dyed wif de famed Tyrian purpwe. Homer's Iwiad, which was composed during dis period, references de qwawity of Phoenician cwoding and metaw goods.[42] Phoenicians awso became de weading producers of gwass in de region, wif dousands of fwasks, beads, and oder gwassware being shipped across de Mediterranean, uh-hah-hah-hah.[62] Cowonies in Spain appeared to have utiwized de potter's wheew,[63] whiwe Cardage, now a nascent city state, utiwized seriaw production to produce warge numbers of ships qwickwy and cheapwy.[64]
Vassawage under de Assyrians (858–608 BC)[edit]
As a mercantiwe power concentrated awong a narrow coastaw strip of wand, de Phoenicians wacked de size and popuwation to support a warge miwitary. Thus, as neighboring empires began to rise, de Phoenicians increasingwy feww under de sway of foreign ruwers, who to varying degrees circumscribed deir autonomy.[49]
The Assyrian conqwest of Phoenicia began wif King Shawmaneser III, who rose to power in 858 BC and began a series of campaigns against neighboring states. The Phoenician city states feww under his ruwe over a period of dree years, forced to pay heavy tribute in money, goods, and naturaw resources. However, de Phoenicians were not annexed outright—dey remained in a state of vassawage, subordinate to de Assyrians but awwowed a certain degree of freedom. Rewative to oder conqwered peopwes in de empire, de Phoenicians were treated weww, due to a history of oderwise amicabwe rewations wif de Assyrians, and to deir importance as a source of income and even dipwomacy for de expanding empire.[49]
After de deaf of Shawmaneser III in 824 BC, de Phoenicians maintained deir qwasi-independence, as subseqwent ruwers did not wish to meddwe in deir internaw affairs, west dey deprive deir empire of a key source of capitaw. This changed in 744 BC, wif de ascension of Tigwaf-Piweser III, who sought to forcefuwwy incorporate surrounding territories rader dan keep dem subordinate. By 738 BC, most of de Levant, incwuding nordern Phoenicia, were annexed and feww directwy under Assyrian administration; onwy Tyre and Bybwos, de most powerfuw of de city states, remained as tributary states outside of direct controw.
Widin years Tyre and Bybwos rebewwed. Tigwaf-Piweser III qwickwy subdued bof cities and imposed heavier tribute. After severaw years, Tyre rebewwed again, dis time awwying wif its erstwhiwe rivaw Sidon, uh-hah-hah-hah. After two to dree years, Sargon II (722–705 BC) successfuwwy besieged Tyre in 721 BC and crushed de awwiance. In 701 BC, his son and successor Sennacherib suppressed furder rebewwions across de region, reportedwy deporting most of Tyre's popuwation to de Assyrian capitaw of Nineveh. During de sevenf century BC, Sidon rebewwed and was compwetewy destroyed by Esarhaddon (681–668 BC), who enswaved its inhabitants and buiwt a new city on its ruins.
Whiwe de Phoenicians endured unprecedented repression and confwict, by de end of de sevenf century BC., de Assyrians had been weakened by successive revowts droughout deir empire, which made wed to deir destruction by de Iranian Median Empire.
Babywonian ruwe (605–538 BC)[edit]
The Babywonians, formerwy vassaws of de Assyrians, took advantage of de empire's cowwapse and rebewwed, qwickwy estabwishing de Neo-Babywonian Empire in its pwace. The decisive battwe of Carchemish in nordern Syria ended de historic hegemony of de Assyrians and deir Egyptian awwies over de Near East. Whiwe Babywonian ruwe over Phoenicia was brief, it hastened de precipitous decwine dat began under de Assyrians. Phoenician cities revowted severaw times droughout de reigns of de first Babywonian king, Nabopowassar (626–605 BC), and his son Nebuchadnezzar II (c. 605–c. 562 BC). The watter's tenure witnessed severaw regionaw rebewwions, especiawwy in de Levant. After suppressing a revowt in Jerusawem, Nebuchadnezzar besieged de rebewwious Tyre, which resisted for dirteen years from 587 to 574 BC. The city uwtimatewy capituwated under "favorabwe terms".[65]
During de Babywonian period, Tyre briefwy became "a repubwic headed by ewective magistrates",[66] adopting a system of government consisting of a pair of judges, known as sufetes, who were chosen from de most powerfuw nobwe famiwies and served short terms.[67]
Persian period (539–332 BC)[edit]
The conqwests of de wate Iron Age weft de Phoenicians powiticawwy and economicawwy weakened, wif city states graduawwy wosing deir infwuence and autonomy in de face of growing foreign powers. Neverdewess, during most of de dree centuries of vassawage and domination by Mesopotamian powers de Phoenicians generawwy managed to remain rewativewy independent and prosperous. Even when conqwered, many of de city states continued to fwourish, weveraging deir rowe as intermediaries, shipbuiwders, and traders for one foreign suzerain or anoder.[49] This pattern wouwd continue drough de roughwy two centuries of Persian ruwe.
In 539 BC, Cyrus de Great, king and founder of de Persian Achaemenid Empire, had expwoited de unravewing of de Neo-Babywonian Empire and took de capitaw of Babywon, uh-hah-hah-hah.[68] As Cyrus began consowidating territories across de Near East, de Phoenicians apparentwy made de pragmatic cawcuwation of "[yiewding] demsewves to de Persians."[69] Most of de Levant was consowidated by Cyrus into a singwe satrapy (province) and forced to pay a yearwy tribute of 350 tawents, which was roughwy hawf de tribute dat was reqwired of Egypt and Libya. This continued de trend, which began under de Assyrians, of de Phoenicians being treated wif a rewativewy wighter hand by most ruwers.[70]
In fact, de area of Phoenicia was water divided into four vassaw kingdoms—Sidon, Tyre, Arwad, and Bybwos—which were awwowed considerabwe autonomy. Unwike in oder areas of de empire, incwuding adjacent Jerusawem and Samaria, dere is no record of Persian administrators governing de Phoenician city-states. Locaw Phoenician kings were awwowed to remain in power and even given de same rights as Persian satraps (governors), such as hereditary offices and minting deir own coins.[68] The oderwise decentrawized nature of Persian administration meant de Phoenicians, dough no wonger an independent and infwuentiaw power, couwd at weast continue to conduct deir powiticaw and mercantiwe affairs wif rewative freedom.[71]
Neverdewess, during de Persian era, many Phoenicians weft to settwe ewsewhere in de Mediterranean, particuwarwy fader west; Cardage was a popuwar destination, as by dis point it was an estabwished and prosperous empire spanning nordwest Africa, Iberia, and parts of Itawy. Indeed, de Phoenicians continued to show sowidarity to deir former cowony-turned-empire, wif Tyre going so far as to defy de order of King Cambyses II to saiw against dem, which Herodotus cwaims prevented de Persians from capturing Cardage. The Tyrians and Phoenicians escaped punishment because dey had peacefuwwy acceded to Persian ruwe years earwier and were rewied upon for sustaining Persian navaw power.[69] Nonedewess, Tyre subseqwentwy wost its priviweged status to its principaw rivaw, Sidon, uh-hah-hah-hah. The Phoenicians remained a core asset to de Achaemenid Empire, particuwarwy for deir prowess in shipbuiwding, navigation, and maritime technowogy and skiww—aww of which de Persians wacked as a predominatewy wand-based power.[68] Archaeowogist H. Jacob Katzenstein describes de Persian empire as a "bwessing" to de Phoenicians, whose cities fwourished due to deir strategic and economic importance. He continues:
The Phoenician towns became a strong factor in de devewopment of Persian powicy because of deir fweets and deir great maritime knowwedge and experience, on which de Persian navy depended. The Persian king recognized dis infwuentiaw position, and de Persians regarded de Phoenicians more as awwies dan subjects. Arvad, Sidon, and Tyre were given warge tracts of wand and awwowed to trade bof on de Phoenician and Pawestinian coast.[68]
Conseqwentwy, de Phoenicians appeared to have been consenting members of de Persian imperiaw project. For exampwe, dey wiwwingwy furnished de buwk of de Persian fweet during de Greco-Persian Wars of de wate fiff century BC.[72] Herodotus considers dem "de best saiwors" among Persian forces.[73] Phoenicians under Xerxes I were eqwawwy commended for deir ingenuity in buiwding de Xerxes Canaw and de pontoon bridges dat awwowed his forces to cross into mainwand Greece.[74] Neverdewess, dey were reportedwy harshwy punished by de Persian king fowwowing his uwtimate defeat at de Battwe of Sawamis, which he bwamed on Phoenician cowardice and incompetence.[75]
In de mid fourf century BC, King Tennes of Sidon wed a faiwed rebewwion against Artaxerxes III, enwisting de hewp of de Egyptians, who were subseqwentwy drawn into a war wif de Persians. A detaiwed account of de rebewwion and subseqwent confwict was described by Diodorus Sicuwus.[76] The resuwting destruction of de city wed once more to de resurgence of its rivaw Tyre, which remained de principaw Phoenician city for two decades untiw de arrivaw of Awexander de Great.
Hewwenistic period (332–63 BC)[edit]
Located on de western periphery of de Persian Empire, Phoenicia was one of de first areas to be conqwered by Awexander de Great during his miwitary campaigns across western Asia. Awexander's main target in de Persian Levant was Tyre, now de region's wargest and most important city. It capituwated after a roughwy seven monf siege, during which many of its citizens fwed to Cardage.[77] Tyre's refusaw to awwow Awexander to visit its tempwe to Mewqart, cuwminating in de kiwwing of his envoys, wed to a brutaw reprisaw: 2,000 of its weading citizens were crucified and a puppet ruwer was instawwed.[78] The rest of Phoenicia easiwy came under his controw, wif Sidon, de second most powerfuw city, surrendering peacefuwwy.[67]
Unwike de Phoenicians—and for dat matter deir former Persian ruwers—de Greeks were notabwy indifferent, if not hostiwe, to foreign cuwtures. Awexander's empire had a powicy of Hewwenization, whereby Greek cuwture, rewigion, and sometimes wanguage were spread or imposed across conqwered peopwes. This was typicawwy impwemented drough de founding of new cities (most notabwy Awexandria in Egypt), de settwement of a Greek urban ewite, and de awteration of native pwace names to Greek.[77]
However, de Phoenicians were once again an outwier widin an empire: dere was evidentwy no "organised, dewiberate effort of Hewwenisation in Phoenicia", and wif one or two minor exceptions, aww Phoenician city states retained deir native names, whiwe Greek settwement and administration appears to have been wimited.[77] This is despite de fact dat adjacent areas had been Hewwenized, as had peripheraw territories wike de Caucasus and Bactria.
The Phoenicians awso continued to maintain cuwturaw and commerciaw winks wif deir western counterparts. Powybius recounts how de Seweucid king Demetrius I escaped from Rome by boarding a Cardaginian ship dat was dewivering goods to Tyre.[79] An inscription in Mawta, made between de second and dird centuries BC, was dedicated to Herakwes/Mewqart in bof Phoenician and Greek. To de extent de Phoenicians were subject to some degree of Hewwenization, "dere was much continuity wif deir Phoenician past—in wanguage and perhaps in institutions; certainwy in deir cuwts; probabwy in some sort of witerary tradition; perhaps in de preservation of archives; and certainwy in a continuous historicaw consciousness."[80] There is even evidence dat a Hewwenistic-Phoenician cuwture spread inwand to Syria.[81] The adaptation to Macedonian ruwe was wikewy aided by de Phoenician's historicaw ties wif de Greeks, wif whom dey shared some mydowogicaw stories and figures; de two peopwes were even sometimes considered "rewatives".[82]
Awexander's empire cowwapsed soon after his deaf in 323 BC, dissowving into severaw rivaw kingdoms ruwed by his generaws, rewatives, or friends. The Phoenicians came under de controw of de wargest and most powerfuw of dese successors, de Seweucids. The Phoenician homewand was repeatedwy contested by de Ptowemaic Kingdom of Egypt during de forty year Syrian Wars, coming under Ptowemaic ruwe in de dird century BC.[83] The Seweucids recwaimed de area de fowwowing century, howding it untiw de mid-first century BC. Under deir ruwe, de Phoenicians were evidentwy awwowed a considerabwe degree of autonomy.[84]
During de Seweucid Dynastic Wars (157–63 BC), de Phoenician cities were fought over by de warring factions of de Seweucid royaw famiwy. The Seweucid Empire, which once stretched from de Aegean Sea to Pakistan, was reduced to a rump state comprising portions of de Levant and soudeast Anatowia. Littwe is known of wife in Phoenicia during dis time, but de Seweucids were severewy weakened, and deir reawm weft as a buffer between various rivaw states before being annexed to Rome by Pompey in 63 BC. After centuries of decwine, de wast vestiges of Phoenician power in de Eastern Mediterranean were absorbed into de Roman province of Coewe-Syria.
The Punic Wars and Roman Ruwe[edit]
Whiwe de Phoenician moderwand was enduring a succession of foreign invasions, its settwement of Cardage was fwourishing in nordwest Africa, eventuawwy becoming de onwy major continuation of Phoenician civiwization and cuwture. Founded in de ninf century BC as a cowony of Tyre, Cardage became an independent city state around 650 BC and soon rose to become a major power, exercising powiticaw hegemony over oder Phoenician settwements, as weww as foreign cuwtures, droughout de western Mediterranean.
Beginning in de fiff century BC, whiwe Phoenicia was under Babywonian ruwe, Cardage became de principaw commerciaw center of de western Mediterranean and one of two hegemonic powers in de whowe Mediterranean, rivawed onwy by Rome. Awdough it devewoped a distinct identity and cuwture, sometimes described as Punic (from de Latin poenus and punicus), de Cardaginians stiww acknowwedged deir Phoenician heritage and maintained many of de same societaw customs and rewigious traditions, awbeit wif some wocawized changes; for exampwe, deir Punic wanguage was a distinct diawect of Phoenician, uh-hah-hah-hah. The Roman term for Phoenicians, Punic, was used to describe Cardage by de contemporary Romans and remains in use by historians.
The Cardaginian economy rewied not onwy on deir traditionaw Phoenician mercantiwe pursuits but awso upon de agricuwturaw and industriaw produce of its overseas cowonies. The Cardaginians oversaw significant expwoitation of iron, wead, siwver, gowd and oder naturaw resources in deir wucrative Iberian cowonies, whiwe deir howdings in Siciwy and Africa incwuded some of de most agricuwturawwy productive wand in de entire Mediterranean basin, uh-hah-hah-hah. There is evidence dat de Cardaginians utiwized de potter's wheew in manufacturing, and pioneered seriaw production techniqwes to produce many ships at minimaw time and cost.[63][64] Cardage's navy was for centuries de dominant force in de Mediterranean, hewping expand and secure de empire and its commerciaw interests. By de dird century BC, Cardage became one of de richest and most popuwous cities in de ancient worwd.
Cardage's growing weawf and power wed to severaw confrontations wif de nascent Roman Repubwic known as de Punic Wars. Spanning weww over a century, de confwict saw some of de wargest and most compwex battwes in antiqwity. The wars wouwd determine de fate of de Mediterranean worwd, and by extension human history, putting Phoenician civiwization versus Greco-Roman civiwization, uh-hah-hah-hah. Notwidstanding a number of decisive and stunning victories, particuwarwy under de weadership of Hannibaw Barca in de Second Punic War, Cardage graduawwy wost territory, power, and prestige, cuwminating in its compwete destruction by Roman forces after de dird and finaw Punic War in 146 BC. The entirety of de Cardaginian Empire was absorbed into Rome, and Cardage itsewf was reduced to rubbwe, awong wif any written records. Awdough de Romans water buiwt a new city of Cardage in its pwace—which grew into one of de wargest and most important cities in de Roman Empire—Phoenician civiwization in de western Mediterranean was aww but extinguished.
Widin a century after de destruction of Cardage, de Seweucid Kingdom, incwuding Phoenicia, was seized by Tigranes de Great of Armenia in 82 BC. Wif deir strategicawwy vawuabwe buffer state absorbed into a rivaw power, de Romans were moved to intervene and conqwer de territory in 62 BC. Shortwy dereafter, de territory was incorporated into de Roman province of Syria. Phoenicia became a separate province in de dird century AD, dough by dat time de Phoenicians wacked de autonomy dat had been accorded by previous powers, and deir cuwture was graduawwy assimiwated into broader Roman society.
Whiwe de annihiwation of Cardage and de absorption of de Levant put an end to Phoenician civiwization, vestiges of de Phoenicians stiww remained, particuwarwy deir wanguage. In de Levant, de Phoenician wanguage persisted untiw roughwy de ninf century.[85] In de western Mediterranean, Punic cuwture survived in Sardinia at weast 400 years after de Roman conqwest, wif de wanguage stiww spoken and written, uh-hah-hah-hah. In de former Cardaginian heartwand of Africa, Punic couwd be written untiw de second or dird centuries (awbeit in Roman and Greek script) and remained spoken among commoners at weast untiw de end of de fourf century.[77] In de earwy dird century, at weast two Roman emperors—Septimius Severus and his son and successor Caracawwa—were of Punic descent.
The Phoenicians were an offshoot of de Canaanites, a group of ancient Semitic-speaking peopwes dat emerged at weast in de second miwwennium BC.[42] Though dey were often known to outsiders as Canaanites, and continued to sewf-identify as such, de Phoenicians became a distinct peopwe some time in de Late Bronze Age, between de 14f and 13f centuries.[86] Phoenician identity was not mutuawwy excwusivewy wif Canaanite identity, since de former was a subgroup of de watter.
Centuries of wargewy peacefuw rewations between Phoenicians and various groups across de ancient worwd suggest deir demographic makeup may have been cosmopowitan and variabwe, especiawwy when compared to deir mostwy homogeneous Greek and Egyptian neighbors. A 2018 study of mitochondriaw wineages in Sardinia concwuded dat de Phoenicians were "incwusive, muwticuwturaw and featured significant femawe mobiwity", wif evidence of indigenous Sardinians integrating "peacefuwwy and permanentwy" wif Phoenicians settwers. The study awso found evidence suggesting dat Europeans may have settwed in de area of modern Lebanon, uh-hah-hah-hah.[87]
The Phoenician settwement of Cardage, wocated in modern day Tunisia, grew into a muwti-ednic empire dat spanned Norf Africa, Sardinia, Siciwy, Mawta, de Baweric Iswands, and soudern Iberia. The extent to which non-Phoenicians were integrated into Cardaginian society, incwuding drough inter-marriage, is unknown, uh-hah-hah-hah. However, de Cardaginian miwitary was known to empwoy a wide variety of ednic groups, incwuding Berbers, Cewts, and indigenous Iberians. Moreover, some onomastic evidence suggests de Cardaginians intermarried wif Libyans at weast by de fourf and dird centuries BC.[88] Powybius awso speaks of "Liby-Phoenicians" of mixed Punic and African origin fighting under Hannibaw.
Genetic studies[edit]
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A study wed by Pierre Zawwoua cwaimed dat six subcwades of Hapwogroup J-M172 (J2)—dought to have originated between de Caucasus Mountains, Mesopotamia and de Levant—were of a "Phoenician signature" and present amongst de mawe popuwations of de "coastaw Lebanese Phoenician Heartwand" and wider Levant (de "Phoenician Periphery"), fowwowed by oder areas of historic Phoenician settwement, spanning Cyprus drough to Morocco.[Note 2] This dewiberate seqwentiaw sampwing was an attempt to devewop a medodowogy to wink de documented historicaw expansion of a popuwation wif a particuwar geographic genetic pattern or patterns. The researchers suggested dat de proposed genetic signature stemmed from "a common source of rewated wineages rooted in Lebanon".[89]
A fowwow up study by Zawwoua in 2013 reveawed dat none of de rewigious communities tested in Lebanon carried significantwy higher wevews of de proposed "Phoenician signature" dan de oders. This suggested dat genetic variation preceded rewigious variation and divisions and, by de time it became Phoenicia, "Lebanon awready had weww-differentiated communities wif deir own genetic pecuwiarities, but not significant differences, and rewigions came as wayers of paint on top."[90] Anoder study in 2006 found evidence for de genetic persistence of Phoenicians in de Spanish iswand of Ibiza.[91]
In 2016, de skeweton of 2,500 year owd Cardaginian man was excavated from a Punic tomb in Tunisia, and was found bearing de rare U5b2c1 maternaw hapwogroup, which appeared between 42,000–58,000 years ago. The wineage of dis "Young Man of Byrsa" is bewieved to represent earwy gene fwow from Iberia to de Maghreb,[92] and is de owdest European wineage discovered in Africa.[93] As de first exampwe of an ancient Phoenician genome, it indicates de extent of Phoenician trade and seafaring, which occurred far earwier dan previouswy bewieved.[94] Thus far, de genome has not been found in modern Lebanon, uh-hah-hah-hah.[95]
A series of studies of different popuwations in de Levant have generawwy concwuded dat Levantine Semites—such as Lebanese, Mizrahi Jews, Pawestinians, and Syrians—are possibwy de cwosest surviving rewatives of ancient Phoenicians. One study found dat de Lebanese share 93% of deir DNA wif Bronze Age Sidonians.[96][97][98][99]
Concentrated awong a narrow strip of wand between de Mediterranean Sea and de Lebanon Mountains, de Phoenician economy rewied heaviwy upon de sea for bof nourishment and trade. Lacking de arabwe wand for agricuwture and de numbers to conqwer or exact tribute from oder territories, de Phoenician city states virtuawwy awways pursued mercantiwism.
Pwiny de Ewder remarked in de first century AD dat de Phoenicians "invented trade". They were indeed de greatest merchants of deir time and owed much of deir prosperity to commerciaw ties across de Mediterranean and possibwy beyond. At first, dey traded mainwy wif de nearby Greeks, particuwarwy wood, swaves, gwass and powdered Tyrian purpwe, a viowet-purpwe dye used by de Greek ewite to cowor garments. As de Greeks began trading and cowonizing across de Mediterranean—possibwy wif de hewp of Phoenician knowwedge and technowogy[100]—de two peopwes appeared to have divided de sea among demsewves: The Phoenicians settwed and dominated de soudern and western shores, whiwe de Greeks were active awong de nordern shores. There was rarewy confwict, except mainwy in de Siciwian Wars of de sixf century BC, and dey oderwise maintained deir respective spheres of infwuence.
To Egypt de Phoenicians sowd wine beginning in de eighf century. The wine trade wif Egypt is vividwy documented by shipwrecks discovered in 1997 in de open sea 50 kiwometres (30 mi) west of Ascawon, Israew.[101] Pottery kiwns at Tyre and Sarepta produced de warge terracotta jars used for transporting wine. From Egypt, de Phoenicians bought Nubian gowd. Additionawwy, great cedar wogs were traded wif wumber-poor Egypt for significant sums. Sometime between 1075 and 1060 BC an Egyptian envoy by de name of Wen-Amon visited Phoenicia and secured seven great cedar wogs in exchange for a mixed cargo incwuding "4 crocks and 1 kak-men of gowd; 5 siwver jugs; 10 garments of royaw winen; 10 kherd of good winen from Upper Egypt; 500 rowws of finished papyrus; 500 cows' hides; 500 ropes; 20 bags of wentiws and 30 baskets of fish." Those wogs were den moved by ship from Phoenicia to Egypt.[102]
From ewsewhere, dey obtained oder materiaws, perhaps de most important being siwver, mostwy from Sardinia and de Iberian Peninsuwa. Tin was reqwired which, when smewted wif copper from Cyprus, created de durabwe metaw awwoy bronze. The archaeowogist Gwenn Markoe suggests dat tin "may have been acqwired from Gawicia by way of de Atwantic coast or soudern Spain; awternativewy, it may have come from nordern Europe (Cornwaww or Brittany) via de Rhone vawwey and coastaw Massawia".[104] Strabo states dat dere was a highwy wucrative Phoenician trade wif Britain for tin via de Cassiterides, whose wocation is unknown but may have been off de nordwest coast of de Iberian Peninsuwa.[105] Professor Timody Champion, discussing Diodorus Sicuwus' comments on de tin trade, states dat "Diodorus never actuawwy says dat de Phoenicians saiwed to Cornwaww. In fact, he says qwite de opposite: de production of Cornish tin was in de hands of de natives of Cornwaww, and its transport to de Mediterranean was organised by wocaw merchants, by sea and den over wand drough France, weww outside Phoenician controw."[106]
The Phoenicians estabwished commerciaw outposts droughout de Mediterranean, wif Tyre weading de way in setting up cowonies in Cyprus, Sardinia, Iberia, de Bawearic Iswands, Siciwy, Mawta, and Norf Africa. Cowonization eventuawwy passed de difficuwt Strait of Gibrawtar, particuwarwy de Atwantic coast of Iberia, and de Phoenicians may have expwored de Canary Iswands and de British Iswes.[42] Over de centuries, de most strategicawwy important city state was Cardage, wocated in present day Tunisia.
Ancient Gaewic mydowogies attribute a Phoenician/Scydian infwux to Irewand by a weader cawwed Fenius Farsa. A Cardaginian expedition wed by Hanno de Navigator expwored and cowonized de Atwantic coast of Africa (de Moroccan coast, and possibwy as far down as de Guwf of Guinea); Herodotus described a Phoenician expedition sent down de Red Sea by Egyptian pharaoh Necho II (c. 600 BC) dat circumnavigated Africa and returned drough de Piwwars of Hercuwes (at de western mouf of de Mediterranean) dree years water.
In de second miwwennium BC, de Phoenicians had a fwourishing trade as far souf as de Horn of Africa, particuwarwy wif de Somawi city-states of Mosywon, Opone, Mawao, Sarapion, Mundus and Tabae.
Phoenicia wacked naturaw resources of appreciabwe qwantity or vawue, wif de exception of its prized cedar wood. Timber was probabwy de earwiest and most wucrative source of weawf, since it was vitaw for making ships and constructing warger houses and tempwes. Neider Egypt nor Mesopotamia had adeqwate sources of wood, and de earwiest accounts from bof civiwizations concern obtaining Phoenician timber. An Assyrian rewief dated to 700 BC, depicts ships transporting what is most wikewy cedar wood from Lebanon to King Sargon II.[107] In de 11f century, an Egyptian priest recorded his mission to obtain cedar wood from Bybwos. In exchange, de city received papyrus, a highwy prized writing materiaw invented by de Egyptians, which was den exported to de rest of de Mediterranean, incwuding to de Greeks; de city's Greek name Bybwos (which came from de native Phoenician Gubaw) conseqwentwy came to mean "papyrus" in Greek.[108]
Unabwe to rewy sowewy on dis rewativewy finite resource, which was difficuwt to obtain from de mountainous hinterwands, de Phoenicians devewoped a sophisticated industriaw base dat manufactured a variety of goods for bof common and wuxury use.[42] The Phoenicians devewoped or mastered techniqwes such as gwass-making, engraved and chased metawwork (incwuding bronze, iron, and gowd), ivory carving, and woodwork. This is confirmed by accounts from de Israewites, Greeks, and Assyrians dat describe Phoenician merchandise consisting of "decorated cwoding and textiwes, engraved and repoussé metawwork, and carved ivory and woodwork."[109]
Considered earwy pioneers in mass production, de Phoenicians were abwe to produce and seww a variety of items in buwk, from pendants to ceramics.[61] Pendants, beads, amuwets, and trinkets, made of eider muwti-cowored gwass or faience shaped into different forms, have been found in tombs droughout de Mediterranean, uh-hah-hah-hah. Phoenicians became de weading source of gwassware in antiqwity, shipping dousands of fwasks, beads, and oder gwass objects across de Mediterranean, uh-hah-hah-hah.[62] Excavations of cowonies in Spain suggest dey awso devewoped or utiwized de potter's wheew.[63] Cardage became a major center of shipbuiwding, based on de discovery of ship parts bearing Punic script, which suggests de use of seriaw production to produce warge numbers of ships qwickwy and cost-effectivewy.[64]
The Phoenician's exposure to a wide variety of cuwtures awwowed dem to manufacture goods for specific markets.[110] Charms and amuwets have been found in de form of scarabs and oder Egyptian symbows and deities. Homer's Iwiad suggests Phoenician cwoding and metaw goods being were highwy prized by de Greeks.[42] Speciawized goods were designed specificawwy for weawdier cwientewe, incwuding ivory rewiefs and pwaqwes, carved cwam shewws, scuwpted amber, and finewy detaiwed and painted ostrich eggs. As needed, de Phoenicians couwd substitute expensive materiaws wif cheaper and more accessibwe kinds, such as carved bone instead of ivory or cowored gwass instead of precious stones.
The Book of Ezekiew, written in de wate sixf century BC, detaiws how Phoenician wares were exchanged for a variety of goods, incwuding "wheat, oiw, and wivestock and precious commodities, such as siwver, iron, tin, wead, ivory, and ebony..."[109]
Tyrian purpwe[edit]
The most famed and coveted of Phoenician goods were fabrics and textiwes dyed wif Tyrian purpwe (named after de major Phoenician city state of Tyre), which formed a major part of Phoenician weawf. The name Phoenicia may have derived from de Greek root word for "purpwe," indicating de extent to which it was de Phoenician's most sought-after trading good. The viowet-purpwe dye derived from de hypobranchiaw gwand of de Murex sea-snaiw, once profusewy avaiwabwe in coastaw waters of de eastern Mediterranean Sea but expwoited to wocaw extinction, uh-hah-hah-hah. Phoenicians may have discovered de dye as earwy as 1750 BC.[111] James B. Pritchard's excavations at Sarepta in present-day Lebanon reveawed crushed Murex shewws and pottery containers stained wif de dye dat was being produced at de site. The Phoenicians estabwished a second production center for de dye in Mogador, in present-day Morocco.[112]
According to contemporaneous accounts by neighboring civiwizations, Tyrian purpwe was highwy prized because of its resistance to weadering and sunwight, which onwy made it brighter. The Phoenician's excwusive command over de production and trade of de dye, combined wif de wabor-intensive extraction process, made it very expensive. Tyrian purpwe subseqwentwy became associated wif de upper cwasses and soon became a status symbow in severaw civiwizations, most notabwy among de Romans. Assyrian records of tribute from de Phoenicians incwude "garments of brightwy cowored stuff" dat most wikewy incwuded Tyrian purpwe. Whiwe de designs, ornamentation, and embroidery used in Phoenician textiwes were apparentwy weww-regarded, de techniqwes and specific descriptions are unknown, uh-hah-hah-hah.[109]
The Phoenicians most wikewy wearned mining techniqwes from de Egyptians. Mining operations in de Phoenician homewand were wimited, since iron was de onwy metaw of any worf. Rawwinson bewieved dat a major motivation for deir initiaw expeditions was to find sources of mineraw weawf. The first warge scawe mining operations probabwy occurred in Cyprus, which was de Phoenician's earwiest and cwosest overseas territory to have mineraw weawf, principawwy copper. Egyptian suzerainty over Phoenicia was motivated partwy to access to copper. Sardinia may have been cowonized awmost excwusivewy for its mineraw resources; Phoenician settwements were concentrated in de soudern and soudwestern parts of de iswand, which were rich in copper and wead, and deir cities were positioned rewativewy cwose to dese sources. Piwes of scorae and copper ingots, which appear to predate de subseqwent Roman occupation, suggest de Phoenicians bof mined and processed metaws on de iswand. The Iberian Peninsuwa, which saw significant Phoenician settwement, was known for being de richest source of numerous metaws in antiqwity, incwuding gowd, siwver, copper, iron, tin, and wead.[113] The output of dese metaws during de Phoenicians and Cardaginian occupation strongwy impwied warge scawe mining operations.[114] There is documentation dat de Cardaginians rewied on swave wabor for mining, dough it is unknown if de Phoenicians as a whowe did so.[113]
Awdough de Phoenician homewand wacked sufficient arabwe wand to support warge scawe agricuwture. The most notabwe agricuwturaw product was wine (known as cherem), which de Phoenicians hewped propagate across de Mediterranean, uh-hah-hah-hah. The common grape vine may have been domesticated by de Phoenicians or Canaanites, awdough it most wikewy arrived from Transcaucasia (modern Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan) via Mesopotamia or Bwack Sea trade routes. Vines grew readiwy in de coastaw Levant, and de wines of Bybwos were exported to Egypt as earwy as de Owd Kingdom period (2686–2134 BC). The wines of Tyre and Sidon were popuwar in de ancient Mediterranean, as evidenced by de discovery of shipwrecks stiww fuww of wine.[115] As de first great traders of wine, de Phoenicians apparentwy devewoped techniqwes to preserve it; to prevent oxidation, vessews were seawed wif a wayer of owive oiw, pinewood, and resin, which may have inspired de Greek taste for retsina.[citation needed]
Wine pwayed an important part in Phoenician rewigion, and de Greek god Dionysus (and by extension de Roman god Bacchus) may have originated in de wine rituaws of Canaan, uh-hah-hah-hah. The great tempwe at Baawbek has many depictions of vines and wine drinking,[116][117] which couwd have infwuenced Jewish Passover Seder and de Christian Eucharist. Wine awso featured heaviwy in Ugaritic poetry, such as de Rapiuma:
Day wong dey pour de wine, ... must-wine, fit for ruwers. Wine, sweet and abundant, Sewect wine... The choice wine of Lebanon, Most nurtured by Ew ...[118]
The Phoenicians may awso have taught winemaking to some of deir trading partners. The ancient Iberians began producing wine from wocaw grape varieties fowwowing deir encounter wif de Phoenicians. Iberian cuwtivars subseqwentwy formed de basis of most western European wine.[119]
Cardage, which had more abundant and fertiwe wand dan oder Phoenician settwements, practiced highwy advanced and productive agricuwture. The Cardaginians appeared to have made good use of deir wand, inventing hand-driven rotary miwws in de sixf century BC and horse miwws in de fourf century BC, whiwe awso adopting or improving upon iron pwoughs, irrigation, crop rotation, and dreshing machines. Cardage was subseqwentwy an agricuwturaw powerhouse of de Mediterranean, exporting owives, nuts, honey, wheat, and various fruits and vegetabwes, especiawwy figs, pears, pomegranates, grates, and dates. Livestock were awso raised, particuwarwy muwes, oxen, goats, and horses. Circumstantiaw evidence suggests Cardage awso devewoped viticuwture and wine production before de fourf century BC, wif raisin wine (passum) being especiawwy popuwar, even among de oderwise hostiwe Romans.
Cardage produced one of history's earwiest agronmists, known onwy as Mago. Considered de "Fader of Farming" by de Greeks and Romans, he produced a 28-book treatise on a wide variety of agricuwturaw topics, ranging from beekeeping to wand management. His work was so weww regarded dat when Rome conqwered and destroyed Cardage in 146 BC, de Roman Senate decreed dat his famous treatise on agricuwture be transwated into Latin, uh-hah-hah-hah. Unfortunatewy, Mago's originaw writings are wost, and onwy fragments remain of its transwations.
Phoenician ships[edit]
The Phoenicians were among de earwiest and most infwuentiaw shipbuiwders and mariners. Navaw historian Richard Woodman described dem as "de first true seafarers, founding de art of piwotage, cabotage, and navigation" and de inventors of "de first true ship, buiwt of pwanks, capabwe of carrying a deadweight cargo and being saiwed and steered."[120] The Greeks and Egyptians considered Phoenician warships and saiwors to be de most superior in antiqwity.[121]
As earwy as 1200 BC, de Phoenicians buiwt warge merchant ships. During de Bronze Age, dey devewoped de keew, de bottom-most wongitudinaw structuraw ewement on a ship, which was a significant advancement over de more common dugout vessews, which were wimited in size, durabiwity, maneuverabiwity. Pegged mortise-and-tenon joints were devewoped to make Phoenician ships sturdier, and proved effective enough to serve as a standard tempwate across de Mediterranean untiw wate into de Roman Empire. Oder key ship components, such as de braiwed rig saiw, which awwowed for greater maneuverabiwity, and de crow's nest, which provided a vitaw wookout point, most wikewy originated in de Levant.
The Phoenicians were possibwy de first to introduce de bireme, around 700 BC, which was a warge gawwey wif two tiers of oars staggered on eider side awwowing for significantwy greater propuwsion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[122] An Assyrian account describes Phoenicians evading capture wif dese ships.[123] The Phoenicians are awso credited wif inventing de trireme, which added an additionaw bank of oars and dus far greater speed.[121] Phoenicians triremes were regarded as de most advanced and powerfuw vessews in de ancient Mediterranean worwd, and were eventuawwy adopted by de Greeks.[121]
The Phoenicians devewoped severaw oder maritime inventions. The amphora, a type of container used for bof dry and wiqwid goods, was an ancient Phoenician invention dat became a standardized measurement of vowume for cwose to two dousand years. The remnants of sewf-cweaning artificiaw harbors have been discovered in Sidon, Tyre, Atwit, and Acre.[124] The Phoenicians rewied on cewestiaw navigation, and most wikewy discovered Powaris (de Norf Star), which enabwed nighttime saiwing and shorter open-sea routes; de Greeks subseqwentwy cawwed Powaris de "Phoenician Star". The wind rose, a precursor to de compass rose, was apparentwy of Phoenician or Levantine origin, uh-hah-hah-hah. The first exampwe of admirawty waw awso appears in de Levant.[125] The Phoenicians continued to contribute to cartography into de Iron Age.[126] The Cardaginians became a major power in de western Mediterranean due wargewy to deir abiwity to qwickwy produce ships drough an innovative use of seriaw production.[127]
The Greeks had two names for Phoenician ships: Gawwoi (tubs) and hippoi (horses). The names are readiwy expwained by depictions of Phoenician ships in de pawaces of Assyrian kings from de sevenf and eighf centuries BC, which were tub shaped (gawwoi) and had horse heads on bof ends. (hippoi). It is possibwe dat de hippoi come from Phoenician connections wif de Greek god Poseidon, eqwated wif de Semitic-Levantine god Yam.[citation needed]
In Oeconomicus, Greek historian and phiwosopher Xenophon, drough de Greek character Ischomachus, speaks admirabwy of Phoenician ships: "I dink dat de best and most perfect arrangement of dings dat I ever saw was when I went to wook at de great Phoenician saiwing-vessew; for I saw de wargest amount of navaw tackwing separatewy disposed in de smawwest stowage possibwe."[128] Ischomachus continues to describe de construction and organization of de Phoenician vessew in great detaiw, emphasizing its sophistication and craftsmanship, as weww as de skiww of its crew.[128] The durabiwity of Phoenician vessews is attributed to deir reguwar maintenance and medodicaw construction, uh-hah-hah-hah.[121]
In 2014, a roughwy 50-foot Phoenician trading ship was found near Gozo iswand in Mawta. Dated 700 BC, it is one of de owdest wrecks found in de Mediterranean and de owdest in de centraw Mediterranean, uh-hah-hah-hah.[129] Fifty amphorae, used to contain wine and oiw, were scattered nearby.[130]
The Tew Bawawat gates, constructed in de ninf century BC for an Assyrian pawace near Nimrud, portrays what are wikewy Phoenician ships coming to honor Shawmaneser III.[131][132]
Important cities and cowonies[edit]
The Phoenicians were not a nation in de powiticaw sense, but were organized into independent city states dat shared a common wanguage and cuwture. The weading city states were Sur (Tyre), Sydon (Sidon), and Bybwos (one of de owdest sites of civiwization). Throughout Phoenician history, at weast one of dese cities was powiticawwy and economicawwy dominant for time. Rivawries were common, but open warfare wess so. Awdough dey never appeared to have joined in a formaw confederation, as seen among de Greek city states, informaw cooperation seemed common, uh-hah-hah-hah.
Numerous oders cities existed in de Levant awone, many probabwy unknown, incwuding Berut (modern Beirut) Ampi, Amia, Arqa, Baawbek, Botrys, Sarepta and Tripowi. From de wate tenf century BC, de Phoenician's drive to expwore and discover new markets wed dem to estabwish cities and cowonies beyond Lebanon and droughout de Mediterranean, uh-hah-hah-hah. Phoenician settwement was especiawwy concentrated in Cyprus, Siciwy, Sardinia, Mawta, nordwest Africa, de Bawearic Iswands, and soudern Iberia. Canaanite deities wike Baaw and Astarte were being worshiped from Cyprus and Siciwy to Spain and Portugaw, most notabwy at Cardage (Qart Hadašt) in modern Tunisia.
Modern Lebanon (de center of Phoenicia)
- Tyre (one of Phoenicia's two weading-city states)
- Sydon Sidon (one of Phoenicia's two weading-city states)
- Berut (modern Beirut, Lebanon's capitaw today)
- Ampi
- Amia
- Arqa
- Baawbek
- Botrys
- Bybwos (one of de owdest sites of civiwization)
- Sarepta
- Tripowi
Modern Awgeria
- Cirta (modern Constantine)
- Cawama (modern Guewma)
- Igigiwi (modern Jijew)
- Hippo (modern Annaba)
- Icosium (modern Awgiers)
- Iow (modern Chercheww)
- Tipasa (modern Tipaza)
- Timgad (modern Timgad)
- Kition (modern Larnaca)
- Idawion (modern Dawi, Cyprus)
- Marion (modern Powis, Cyprus)
Modern Itawy
- Sardinia
- Siciwy
- Kosyra (Pantewweria)
- Lampas (Lampedusa)
- Liwybaeaum (modern Marsawa) after de Siege of Motya and its destruction
- Motya
- Sowuntum
- Zyz (modern Pawermo)
Modern Libya
The iswands of Mawta
- Mawef (modern Mdina)[134]
- Għajn Qajjet[135]
- Tas-Siwġ[134]
- Mtarfa[136][137]
- Qawwiwija[138]
- Ras iw-Wardija in Gozo[134]
Modern Portugaw
- Baaw Saphon or Baaw Shamen, water romanized as Bawsa (modern Tavira, Awgarve)[139]
- Lisbon was probabwy a Phoenician trading post, rader dan a settwement.
Modern Spain
- Abdera (modern Adra) and its dependencies in de 3rd century BC.
- Abywa (modern Ceuta, on de Moroccan coast)
- Akra Leuke (modern Awicante)
- Gadir (modern Cádiz)
- Specuwum Rotae (modern Rota)
- Ibossim (modern Ibiza)
- Mawaka or mwk (modern Máwaga)[140]
- Onoba (modern Huewva)
- Qart Hadašt (Greek: Νέα Καρχηδόνα; Latin: Cardago Nova; Spanish: Cartagena)
- Rusadir (modern Mewiwwa, on de Moroccan coast)
- Sexi (modern Awmuñécar)
Modern Tunisia
- Qart Hadašt (Greek: Καρχηδόνα; Latin: Cardago; Spanish: Cartago)
- Hadrumetum (modern Susat)
- Hippo Diarrhytus (modern Bizerte)
- Kerkouane
- Sicca (modern Ew Kef)
- Thapsus (near modern Bekawta)
- Utica
Modern Turkey
- Phoenicus (modern Finike)
Modern Morocco
- Acra
- Arambys (Mogador)[141]
- Caricus Murus
- Gytta
- Lixus (modern Larache)
- Tingis (modern Tangier)
- Vowubiwis
Modern Mauritania
Oder cowonies
Additionawwy, de semi-mydicaw region of Tartessos, said to have spanned de whowe soudern part of de Iberian Peninsuwa, may have been a Phoenician cowony.[142]
Phoenician cowonization[edit]
To faciwitate deir commerciaw ventures, de Phoenicians estabwished numerous cowonies and trading posts awong de coasts of de Mediterranean, uh-hah-hah-hah. Phoenician city states generawwy wacked de numbers or even de desire to expand deir territory overseas. In contrast to deir Greek counterparts, few cowonies had more dan 1,000 inhabitants; onwy Cardage and some nearby settwements in de western Mediterranean wouwd grow warger.[143] The Phoenicians were instead driven by various practicaw considerations, such as seeking safe harbors for deir merchant fweets, maintaining a monopowy on an area's naturaw resources, satisfying de demand for trade goods, and finding areas where dey couwd trade freewy widout outside interference.[144][145][146] Over time, many Phoenicians awso fwed subjugation and tributary obwigations to foreign powers; many cowonies were founded during de period of Assyrian infwuence in de ninf century BC, most notabwy Cardage. Anoder motivating factor was competition wif de Greeks, who began expanding across de Mediterranean during de same period.[147] Though a wargewy peacefuw rivawry, deir respective settwements in Crete and Siciwy did cwash intermittentwy.[148]
The earwiest Phoenician settwements outside de Levant were on Cyprus and Crete, graduawwy moving westward towards Corsica, de Bawearic Iswands, Sardinia, and Siciwy, as weww as on de European mainwand in Genoa and Marseiwwes.[149] The first Phoenician cowonies in de western Mediterranean were awong de nordwest African coast and on Siciwy, Sardinia and de Bawearic Iswands—cwose to de mineraw rich Iberian Peninsuwa.[150] As de wargest and weawdiest city-state among de Phoenicians, Tyre wed de way in settwing or controwwing coastaw areas. Notwidstanding Strabo's exaggerated cwaims de Tyre founded 300 cowonies in norf Africa, many cowonies did arise in Tunisia, Morocco, Awgeria, Iberia, and, to a much wesser extent, on de arid coast of Libya.[151] The entire area wouwd water come under de weadership and protection of Cardage, which eventuawwy settwed its own cowonies, or reinforced dose dat decwined wif de woss of primacy of Tyre and Sidon.[152][153]
Untiw de rise of Cardage in de mid-sevenf century BC, Phoenician cowonies were fairwy autonomous. At most, dey were expected to send annuaw tribute to deir moder city, usuawwy in de context of a rewigious offering. The Cardaginians broke wif dis powicy by appointing magistrates in deir cowonies, drough whom dey exercised direct controw.[154] However, Cardage continued to send annuaw tribute to Tyre for some time after its independence, namewy in de form of offering to de tempwe of Mewqart. The affinity was apparentwy mutuaw, as Tyre reportedwy refused to saiw against its former cowony as ordered by de Persian King Cambyses II.
Society and cuwture[edit]
Since very wittwe of de Phoenicians' own writings have survived, much of what is known about deir cuwture and society comes from accounts by contemporary civiwizations or inferences from archaeowogicaw discoveries. Pomponius Mewa, writing in de first century AD, once described de Phoenicians as "a cwever race, who prospered in war and peace" and "excewwed in writing and witerature, and in oder arts, in seamanship, and in ruwing an empire."[49] By contrast, deir reputation as traders and merchants meant dey were sometimes regarded as overwy materiawistic, unprincipwed, and rapacious.[49]
The Phoenicians had much in common wif oder Canaanites, incwuding wanguage, rewigion, sociaw customs, and a monarchicaw powiticaw system centered around city-states. However, by de earwy Iron Age (roughwy 1300 BC) de Phoenicians had emerged as a distinct peopwe, wif deir cuwture, economy, and daiwy wife being heaviwy centered on commerce and maritime trade. Their propensity for seafaring brought dem into contact wif numerous civiwizations, possibwy more dan any of deir contemporaries, weading to a uniqwewy cosmopowitan society dat incorporated foreign customs, artistic stywes, and faif traditions.
Powitics and government[edit]
Despite a shared wanguage, cuwture, and rewigion, de Phoenicians never constituted a singwe, cohesive powiticaw unit, nor did dey appear to view demsewves as a nation in de modern sense. The Phoenicians organized into city states dat were fiercewy independent in bof domestic and foreign affairs. Formaw awwiances between city states were rare, and cooperation was generawwy informaw, woosewy awigned, and ad hoc. Unwike deir Greek counterparts, warfare between Phoenician city states was rarer stiww, awdough rivawries did exist and coercion was sometimes empwoyed. The rewative power and infwuence of city states varied over time. Sidon was dominant between de 12f and 11f centuries BC, and exercised some infwuence over its neighbors, but by de tenf century BC, Tyre rose to become de most powerfuw city.
Phoenician society was highwy stratified and predominantwy monarchicaw, at weast in its earwier stages. Hereditary kings usuawwy governed wif absowute power and had responsibiwities over civic, commerciaw, and rewigious affairs. They often rewied upon senior officiaws from de nobwe and merchant cwasses, who typicawwy served in an adirim, a counciw of "great men". The priesdood was a distinct cwass, usuawwy of royaw wineage or from weading merchant famiwies. The king was considered a representative of de gods and carried many obwigations and duties wif respect to rewigious processions and rituaws. Priests were dus highwy infwuentiaw and often became intertwined wif de royaw famiwy.
Unwike deir Greek and Egyptian counterparts, Phoenician kings did not commemorate deir reign drough scuwptures or monuments. Their weawf, power, and accompwishments were usuawwy conveyed drough ornate sarcophagi, wike dat of Ahiram of Bybwos. The Phoenicians kept fairwy meticuwous records of deir ruwers in de form of tomb inscriptions, which are among de few primary sources stiww avaiwabwe. Historians have been abwe to determine a cwear wine of succession over centuries for some city-states, notabwy Bybwos and Tyre.
Semi-democratic government[edit]
Not aww Phoenician city states were absowute monarchies; deir powiticaw systems appeared to have changed graduawwy over time or depending on de circumstances. British cwassicist Simon Hornbwower notes dat de Phoenicians "had someding comparabwe to de sewf-reguwating city-state or powis" of de Greeks.[155] As earwy as de 14f century BC, Egyptian envoys reported dat Phoenician assembwies "might act on deir own behawf"; when de city state of Irqata decwared its awwegiance to de pharaoh, it did so as "Irqata and its ewders", widout reference to a king.[156] Simiwarwy, de pharaoh is addressed by "de citizens of Tunip," de "peopwe from Gubwa (Bybwos)," and "de men of Arwad."[156] An 11f century BC Egyptian report found dat whiwe de king of Bybwos managed trade and rewigious wife, state affairs were handwed wif advice by an "assembwy".
In de sixf century BC, during de period of Babywonian ruwe, Tyre briefwy adopted a system of government consisting of a pair of judges, known as sufetes, who were chosen from de most powerfuw nobwe famiwies and served short terms.[67] One schowar characterized Tyre during dis period as "a repubwic headed by ewective magistrates".[66]
In de fourf century BC, when de armies of Awexander de Great approached Tyre, dey were met not by its king but by "representatives" of de "commonweawf" or de "community" of de city. In a dipwomatic exchange, it was "de peopwe" of Tyre who passed a decree in response. Simiwarwy, historians at de time describe de "inhabitants" or "de peopwe" of Sidon making peace wif Awexander, wif de king surrendering after being "prompted by his citizens' wishes rader dan his own, uh-hah-hah-hah."[67] When de Macedonians sought to appoint a new king over Sidon, de citizens nominated deir own candidate.[67]
According to Stephen Stockweww, whiwe de Phoenicians initiawwy had strong monarchies, starting as earwy as 15f century BC drough to de fourf century BC, deir "weaders were advised by counciws or assembwies which graduawwy took greater power", weading to weaker kings being de norm. Stockweww concwudes dat "de active rowe dat de assembwy took on de few occasions we see it in operation suggests dat de Phoenicians had someding more dan an autocracy or even owigarchy and dat it earns categorization as a proto-democracy, at weast, if not fuww recognition as a democracy."[157]
- Cardaginian repubwic
Far more is known about de government of Cardage dan of any oder Phoenician city state, perhaps owing to its proximity to Rome and its prominence as an empire (since most information comes from Greco-Roman accounts). Like its moder city of Tyre, it appeared to have been ruwed by two sufetes.[158][Note 3] In de wate fiff century BC, Cardage devewoped into a sophisticated owigarchic repubwic, characterized by a system of checks and bawances, separation of powers, and a degree of pubwic representation and accountabiwity.[159]
A supreme counciw of aristocratic famiwies, akin to de Roman Senate or Spartan Gerousia (counciw of ewders), had a wide range of powers, incwuding over de treasury and foreign affairs.[160] The office of sufete was simiwar to a modern executive presidency; whiwe stiww drawn from de weawdiest and most powerfuw famiwies, each was ewected by eider de supreme counciw or an assembwy of de masses.[161][162][Note 4] The sufetes no wonger had absowute power but ruwed drough cowwegiawity, simiwar to Roman consuws. They exercised judiciaw and executive audority, but unwike powiticaw weaders in oder ancient societies, dey had no direct controw over de armed forces; dey instead appointed generaws to handwe aww miwitary affairs. A number of junior officiaws and speciaw commissioners oversaw various aspects of governance, such as pubwic works, tax cowwection, and de administration of de state treasury.[161][163]
A counciw known as de Hundred and Four, which Aristotwe compared to de ephors of Sparta, had a qwasi-judiciaw function, acting as a kind of higher constitutionaw court dat oversaw de actions of generaws and oder officiaws.[158] At de concwusion of a battwe or war, army commanders were expected to undergo a review of deir performance before de Hundred and Four. Panews of speciaw commissioners, cawwed pentarchies, were appointed from among de Hundred and Four to handwe various state affairs.[161]
Law and administration[edit]
After de king and counciw, de two most important powiticaw positions in virtuawwy every Phoenician city state were dat of governor and commander of de army. Detaiws regarding de duties of dese offices are sparse, but it is known dat de governor was responsibwe for cowwecting taxes, impwementing decrees, supervising judges, and ensuring de administration of waw and justice.[49] As warfare was rare among de mostwy mercantiwe Phoenicians, de commander of de army was generawwy responsibwe for ensuring de defense and security of de city-state and its hinterwands.
The Phoenicians had a system of courts and judges dat resowved disputes and punished crimes based on a semi-codified body of waw and traditionaw. Laws were impwemented by de state and were de responsibiwity of de ruwer and certain designated officiaws. Like oder Levantine societies, waws were harsh and biased, refwecting de sociaw stratification of society. The murder of a commoner was treated as wess serious dan of a nobweman, and de upper cwasses had de most rights; de weawdy often escaped punishment by paying a fine. Free men of any cwass couwd represent demsewves in court and had more rights dan women and chiwdren, whiwe swaves had no rights at aww. Men couwd often defwect punishment to deir wives, chiwdren, or swaves, even having dem serve his sentence in his pwace. Lawyers eventuawwy emerged as a profession for dose who couwd not pwead deir own case.
As in neighboring societies at de time, penawties for crimes were often severe, usuawwy refwecting de principwe of reciprocity; for exampwe, de kiwwing of a swave wouwd be punished by having de offender's swave kiwwed. Imprisonment was rare, wif fines, exiwe, punishment, and execution were main remedies.
As wif most aspects of Phoenician civiwization, dere are few records of deir miwitary or approach to warfare. Compared to most of deir neighbors, de Phoenicians generawwy had wittwe interest in conqwest and were a rewativewy peacefuw peopwe.[164] The weawf and prosperity of aww deir city states rested on foreign trade, which reqwired good rewations and a certain degree of mutuaw trust. They awso wacked de territory and agricuwturaw base to support a popuwation warge enough for anyding oder dan city defense; each city had an army commander in charge of a defensive garrison, but de specifics of de rowe, or of city defense, are unknown, uh-hah-hah-hah.
More is known about de miwitary of Cardage, dough it is uncertain wheder de Cardaginian miwitary was refwective of generaw Phoenician practice or uniqwe to Cardage's sprawwing, muwti-ednic empire.[165] Cardage's miwitary traditions generawwy refwected Phoenician roots combined wif native Norf African and Greek infwuences. Like oder Phoenicians, de Cardaginians were wargewy a maritime and trading power, and did not maintain a warge, permanent, standing army. Powybius wrote dat dey were naturawwy "superior at sea bof in efficiency and eqwipment, because seamanship has wong been deir nationaw craft" and dey were "more exercised in maritime affairs dan any oder peopwe"[166] By contrast, he cwaims de Cardaginian infantry was "negwected" and its cavawry given "swight attention".[166]
At its peak, Cardage's navy comprised 300 to 350 warships. In de First Punic War, de Romans, who previouswy wacked experience in navaw warfare, prevaiwed partwy by reverse-engineering captured Cardaginian ships. In de Third Punic War, Powybius describes a tacticaw innovation of de Cardaginians, who now faced a warger Roman force: They augmented deir few triremes wif smaww vessews dat carried hooks (to attack de oars) and fire (to attack de huwws). This awwowed dem to resist far wonger despite being outnumbered.
As far as wand warfare, Livy cwaims dat Cardage had at weast 40,000 professionaw sowdiers prior to de Third Punic War. Oderwise, it rewied heaviwy on a muwtinationaw force of foreign mercenaries and subjects, incwuding ednic Libyans and Numidians from its surrounding territory, and Cewts, Bawearics, Iberians from its overseas territories. Its cavawry force was formidabwe, composed of wight Numidian cavawry and mounted Norf African ewephants. Swingers, armed wif straps of cwof to toss smaww stones at high speeds, were awso fiewded.
Unwike its army, de Cardaginian navy was drawn mostwy from Phoenician citizenry. Perhaps refwecting historic Phoenician affinity for de sea, de navy was considered a stabwe and prestigious profession dat offered financiaw security. This hewped to contribute to de city's powiticaw stabiwity, as poor and unempwoyed citizens couwd find an outwet for upward mobiwity. The reputation and qwawity of de Cardaginian navy, conceded even by deir Roman rivaws, impwies dat deir saiwors were weww trained even during peacetime.
The Phoenician wanguage is cwassified in de Canaanite subgroup of Nordwest Semitic. Its water descendant in nordwest Africa is termed Punic, which evowved in Phoenician cowonies around de western Mediterranean, beginning in de ninf century BC. Punic Phoenician was stiww spoken in de fiff century AD; St. Augustine, who grew up in Nordwest Africa, was famiwiar wif de wanguage.
The Phoenician awphabet was one of de first (consonantaw) awphabets wif a strict and consistent form. It is assumed dat it adopted its simpwified winear characters from an as-yet unattested earwy pictoriaw Semitic awphabet devewoped some centuries earwier in de soudern Levant.[167][168] It is wikewy dat de precursor to de Phoenician awphabet was of Egyptian origin, since Middwe Bronze Age awphabets from de soudern Levant resembwe Egyptian hierogwyphs or an earwy awphabetic writing system found at Wadi-ew-How in centraw Egypt.[169][170] In addition to being preceded by proto-Canaanite, de Phoenician awphabet was awso preceded by an awphabetic script of Mesopotamian origin cawwed Ugaritic. The devewopment of de Phoenician awphabet from de Proto-Canaanite coincided wif de arrivaw de Iron Age in de 11f century BC.[171] This awphabet has been termed an abjad — dat is, a script dat contains no vowews — from de first four wetters aweph, bef, gimew, and dawef.
The owdest known representation of de Phoenician awphabet is inscribed on de sarcophagus of King Ahiram of Bybwos, dating to de 11f century BC at de watest. Phoenician inscriptions are found in Lebanon, Syria, Israew, Cyprus and oder wocations, as wate as de earwy centuries of de Christian era. The Phoenicians are credited wif spreading de Phoenician awphabet droughout de Mediterranean worwd.[172] Phoenician traders disseminated dis writing system awong Aegean trade routes, to Crete and Greece. The Greeks adopted de majority of dese wetters but changed some of dem to vowews dat were significant in deir wanguage, giving rise to de first true awphabet. The Romans wouwd in turn adopt de Greek awphabet as de basis for de Latin script.
Phoenician art was wargewy centered on ornamentaw objects, particuwarwy jewewry, pottery, gwassware, and rewiefs.[173] Large scuwptures were rare, awdough figurines were more common, and whiwe typicawwy crude, had individuawized features. Phoenician art generawwy wacked uniqwe characteristics dat might distinguish it from its contemporaries; it was highwy infwuenced by de many cuwtures de Phoenicians traded and interacted wif, primariwy Egypt, Greece and Assyria. These infwuences were sometimes refwected in specific categories of art; Greek inspiration was particuwarwy pronounced in pottery, whiwe Egyptian stywes were most refwected in ivory work.[173] Phoenicians who were taught on de banks of de Niwe and de Euphrates gained a wide artistic experience and finawwy came to create deir own art, which was an amawgam of foreign modews and perspectives.[174] An 1879 articwe from The New York Times described Phoenician approach to art as fowwows:
He entered into oder men's wabors and made most of his heritage. The Sphinx of Egypt became Asiatic, and its new form was transpwanted to Nineveh on de one side and to Greece on de oder. The rosettes and oder patterns of de Babywonian cywinders were introduced into de handiwork of Phoenicia, and so passed on to de West, whiwe de hero of de ancient Chawdean epic became first de Tyrian Mewkarf, and den de Herakwes of Hewwas.
Over time, Egyptian artistic infwuence became especiawwy prominent, often refwecting de evowving powiticaw and economic rewations between de two civiwization, uh-hah-hah-hah.[175] For exampwe, de famed Ahiram sarcophagus shows wittwe infwuence from de concurrent 20f and 21st dynasties of Egypt—instead bearing artistic conventions from nordern Syria[176]—whiwe subseqwent art had Egyptian motifs dat refwected de resumption of Phoenician ties wif de 22nd Dynasty of Egypt.[177]
Phoenician art awso differed from its contemporaries in its continuance of Bronze Age conventions weww into de Iron Age, such as terracotta masks.[178] Based on contemporary accounts, Phoenician artisans were known for deir skiww wif wood, ivory, bronze, and textiwes.[175] In de Owd Testament, a craftsman from Tyre was commissioned to buiwd and decorate de wegendary Sowomon's Tempwe in Jerusawem, which "presupposes a weww-devewoped and highwy respected craft industry in Phoenicia by de mid-tenf century BC".[176][179] The Iwiad mentions de embroidered robes of Priam's wife, Hecabe, as "de work of Sidonian women"[180] and describes a mixing boww of chased siwver as "a masterpiece of Sidonian craftsmanship."[181] The Assyrians appeared to have vawued Phoenician ivory work in particuwar, cowwecting vast qwantities in deir pawaces.[182]
The Phoenician artistic tradition appears to have been indewibwy tied to its peopwe's commerciaw interests.[109] The second century historian Phiwo of Bybwos noted dat de Phoenician god of craftsmanship, Chousor, was awso de inventor of de raft and de first saiwor. There are Greek accounts describing de arrivaw of Phoenician traders bearing "trinkets and baubwes."[109] The Phoenicians appeared to have used deir knowwedge of foreign artistic stywes to craft goods dat wouwd specificawwy appeaw to certain trading partners, distinguishing not onwy different cuwtures but even socioeconomic cwasses.[109] This is awso evidenced in de broad distribution of Phoenician goods, which have been found as west as Spain and Morocco, as norf as Russia and as east as Iraq. In fact, much of what is known about Phoenician art is based from excavations outside of Phoenicia proper.
Decorative pwaqwe which depicts a fighting of man and griffin; 900–800 BC; Nimrud ivories; Cwevewand Museum of Art (Ohio, US)
Oinochoe; 800–700 BC; terracotta; height: 24.1 cm; Metropowitan Museum of Art (New York City)
As was common in antiqwity, Phoenician women had few rights and were considered de property of deir faders or husbands. Nonedewess, compared to deir counterparts in most of de Mediterranean and western Asia, dey appeared to have enjoyed some freedoms.[183] They took part in pubwic events and rewigious processions; depictions of banqwets show dem casuawwy sitting or recwining wif men, dancing, and pwaying music. Ceremonies to Baaw, de god of fertiwity, incwuded drunken revewry and promiscuity, which is typicawwy taboo in more gender stratified societies.[184] In most contexts, however, women were expected to dress and behave more modestwy dan men; femawe figures are awmost awways portrayed as draped from head to feet, wif de arms sometimes covered as weww.
Women couwd engage in trade and oder business activities, often working as waborers, construction workers, farmers, weavers, and even miners. However, dey couwd never be in a formaw position of audority over men, uh-hah-hah-hah. As in most civiwizations at de time, de woman's primary rowe was to raise chiwdren and manage de househowd.
Awdough dey rarewy had powiticaw power, women took part in community affairs and had some voice in de popuwar assembwes dat began to emerge in some city states.[185] At weast one woman, Unmiashtart, is recorded to have ruwed Sidon in de fiff century BC.[49] The two most famous Phoenician women are powiticaw figures: Jezebew, portrayed in de Bibwe as de assertive princess of Sidon, and Dido, de semi-wegendary founder and first qween of Cardage. In Virgiw's epic poem de Aeneid, Dido is described as having been de co-ruwer of Tyre, using cweverness to escape de tyranny of her broder Pygmawion and to secure an ideaw site for Cardage.
The rewigious practices and bewiefs of Phoenicia were cognate generawwy to deir neighbours in Canaan, which in turn shared characteristics common droughout de ancient Semitic worwd.[186][187][188] "Canaanite rewigion was more of a pubwic institution dan of an individuaw experience." Its rites were primariwy for city-state purposes; payment of taxes by citizens was considered in de category of rewigious sacrifices.[189] Unfortunatewy, many of de Phoenician sacred writings known to de ancients have been wost.[190][191]
Phoenician society was devoted to de state Canaanite rewigion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[192][193][194] Severaw of its reported practices have been mentioned by schowars, such as tempwe prostitution,[195] and chiwd sacrifice.[196] "Tophets", buiwt "to burn deir sons and deir daughters in de fire", are condemned by Yahweh in de Hebrew bibwe, particuwarwy in Jeremiah 7:30–32, and in 2nd Kings 23:10 and 17:17). Notwidstanding dese and oder important differences, cuwturaw rewigious simiwarities between de ancient Hebrews and de Phoenicians persisted.[192][197]
Canaanite rewigious mydowogy does not appear as ewaborate compared wif de witerature of deir Semitic cousins in Mesopotamia. In Canaan de supreme god was cawwed Ew (𐤀𐤋, "god").[198][199] The son of Ew was Baaw (𐤁𐤏𐤋, "master", "word"), a powerfuw dying-and-rising storm god.[200] Oder gods were cawwed by royaw titwes, as in Mewqart meaning "king of de city",[201] or Adonis for "word".[202] (Such epidets may often have been merewy wocaw titwes for de same deities.) On de oder hand, de Phoenicians, notorious for being secretive in business, might use dese nondescript words as cover for de secwuded name of de god,[203] known onwy to a sewect few initiated into de inmost circwe, or not even used by dem, much as deir neighbors and cwose rewatives de ancient Israewites/Judeans sometimes used de honorific Adonai (Heb: "My Lord") in pwace of de tetragrammaton—a practice which became standard (if not mandatory) in de Second Tempwe period onward.[204]
The Semitic pandeon was weww-popuwated; which god became primary evidentwy depended on de exigencies of a particuwar city-state or tribaw wocawe.[205][206] Due perhaps to de weading rowe of de city-state of Tyre, its reigning god Mewqart was prominent droughout Phoenicia and overseas. Awso of great generaw interest was Astarte (𐤀𐤔𐤕𐤓𐤕)—a form of de Babywonian Ishtar—a fertiwity goddess who awso enjoyed regaw and matronwy aspects. The prominent deity Eshmun of Sidon was a heawing god, seemingwy cognate wif deities such as Adonis (possibwy a wocaw variant of de same) and Attis. Associated wif de fertiwity and harvest myf widespread in de region, in dis regard Eshmun was winked wif Astarte; oder wike pairings incwuded Ishtar and Tammuz in Babywon, and Isis and Osiris in Egypt.[207]
Rewigious institutions of great antiqwity in Tyre, cawwed marzeh (𐤌𐤓𐤆𐤄, "pwace of reunion"), did much to foster sociaw bonding and "kin" woyawty.[208] These institutions hewd banqwets for deir membership on festivaw days. Various marzeh societies devewoped into ewite fraternities, becoming very infwuentiaw in de commerciaw trade and governance of Tyre. As now understood, each marzeh originated in de congeniawity inspired and den nurtured by a series of rituaw meaws, shared togeder as trusted "kin", aww hewd in honor of de deified ancestors.[209] Later, at de Punic city-state of Cardage, de "citizen body was divided into groups which met at times for common feasts." Such festivaw groups may awso have composed de voting cohort for sewecting members of de city-state's Assembwy.[210][211]
Punic variation in Cardage[edit]
Rewigion in Cardage was based on inherited Phoenician ways of devotion, uh-hah-hah-hah. In fact, untiw its faww, embassies from Cardage wouwd reguwarwy make de journey to Tyre to worship Mewqart, bringing materiaw offerings.[212][213] Transpwanted to distant Cardage, dese Phoenician ways persisted, but naturawwy acqwired distinctive traits, perhaps by spirituaw and cuwturaw evowution, syndesis wif Berber tribaw practices, or transformation under de stress of powiticaw and economic forces encountered by de city-state. Over time de originaw Phoenician exempwar devewoped distinctwy, becoming de Punic rewigion at Cardage.[214] The Cardaginians were said to be "notorious in antiqwity for de intensity of deir rewigious bewiefs", wif deir "superstition and intense rewigiosity" as weww known as deir reputation as merchants.[215] "They imagined demsewves wiving in a worwd inhabited by supernaturaw powers which were mostwy mawevowent. For protection dey carried amuwets of various origins and had dem buried wif dem when dey died."[216]
In Cardage, as in Tyre, rewigion was integraw to de city's wife. A committee of ten ewders sewected by de civiw audorities reguwated worship and buiwt de tempwes wif pubwic funds. Some priesdoods were hereditary to certain famiwies. Punic inscriptions wist a hierarchy of cohen (priest) and rab cohenim (word priests). Each tempwe was under de supervision of its chief priest or priestess. To enter de Tempwe of Eshmun one had to abstain from sexuaw intercourse for dree days, and from eating beans and pork.[217] Private citizens awso nurtured deir own destiny, as evidenced by de common use of deophoric personaw names, e.g., Hasdrubaw, "he who has Baaw's hewp" and Hamiwcar [Abdewmewqart], "pwedged to de service of Mewqart".[218]
The city's wegendary founder, Ewissa or Dido, was de widow of Acharbas de high priest of Tyre in service to its principaw deity Mewqart.[219] Dido was awso attached to de fertiwity goddess Astarte. Wif her Dido brought not onwy rituaw impwements for de worship of Astarte, but awso her priests and sacred prostitutes (taken from Cyprus).[220] The agricuwturaw turned heawing god Eshmun was worshipped at Cardage, as were oder deities. Mewqart became suppwanted at de Punic city-state by de emergent god Baaw Hammon, which perhaps means "word of de awtars of incense" (dought to be an epidet to cwoak de god's reaw name).[214][221] Later, anoder newwy arisen deity arose eventuawwy to reign supreme at Cardage, a goddess of agricuwture and generation who manifested a regaw majesty, Tanit.[222]
The name Baaw Hammon (𐤁𐤏𐤋 𐤇𐤌𐤍) has attracted schowarwy interest, wif most schowars viewing it as a probabwe derivation from de Nordwest Semitic ḥammān ("brazier"), suggesting de meaning "Lord of de Brazier". This may be supported by incense burners and braziers found depicting de god. Frank Moore Cross argued for a connection to Hamōn, de Ugaritic name for Mt. Amanus, an ancient name for de Nur Mountain range.[223] Modern schowars at first associated Baaw Hammon wif de Egyptian god Ammon of Thebes, bof de Punic and de Egyptian being gods of de sun, uh-hah-hah-hah. Bof awso had de ram as a symbow. The Egyptian Ammon was known to have spread by trade routes to Libyans in de vicinity of modern Tunisia, weww before arrivaw of de Phoenicians. Yet Baaw Hammon's derivation from Ammon is no wonger considered de most wikewy, as Baaw Hammon has since been traced to Syrio-Phoenician origins, confirmed by recent finds at Tyre.[224] Baaw Hammon is awso presented as a god of agricuwture: "Baaw Hammon's power over de wand and its fertiwity rendered him of great appeaw to de inhabitants of Tunisia, a wand of fertiwe wheat- and fruit-bearing pwains."[225][226]
"In Semitic rewigion Ew, de fader of de gods, had graduawwy been shorn of his power by his sons and rewegated to a remote part of his heavenwy home; in Cardage, on de oder hand, he became, once more, de head of de pandeon, under de enigmatic titwe of Ba'aw Hammon, uh-hah-hah-hah."— Charwes-Picard & Picard (1968), p. 45
Prayers of individuaw Cardaginians were often addressed to Baaw Hammon, uh-hah-hah-hah. Offerings to Hammon awso evidentwy incwuded chiwd sacrifice.[227][228][229] Diodorus (wate 1st century BC) wrote dat when Agadocwes had attacked Cardage in 310 BC, severaw hundred chiwdren of weading famiwies were sacrificed to regain de god's favour.[230] In modern times, de French novewist Gustave Fwaubert's 1862 work Sawammbô graphicawwy featured dis god as accepting such sacrifice.[231]
During de fiff and fourf centuries, de goddess Tanit became qween goddess, supreme over de city-state of Cardage, dus outshining de former chief god and her associate, Baaw-Hammon, uh-hah-hah-hah.[233][234] Tanit was represented by "pawm trees weighed down wif dates, ripe pomegranates ready to burst, wotus or wiwies coming into fwower, fish, doves, frogs... ." She gave to mankind a fwow of vitaw energies.[235][236] Tanit may be Berbero-Libyan in origin, or at weast assimiwated to a wocaw deity.[237][238]
Anoder view, supported by recent finds, howds dat Tanit originated in Phoenicia, being cwosewy winked dere to de goddess Astarte.[239][240] Tanit and Astarte: each one was bof a funerary and a fertiwity goddess. Each was a sea goddess. As Tanit was associated wif Ba'aw Hammon de principaw god in Punic Cardage, so Astarte was wif Ew in Phoenicia. Yet Tanit was cwearwy distinguished from Astarte. Astarte's heavenwy embwem was de pwanet Venus, Tanit's de crescent moon, uh-hah-hah-hah. Tanit was portrayed as chaste; at Cardage rewigious prostitution was apparentwy not practiced.[241][242] Yet tempwe prostitution pwayed an important rowe in Astarte's cuwt at Phoenicia. Awso, de Greeks and Romans did not compare Tanit to de Greek Aphrodite nor to de Roman Venus as dey wouwd Astarte. Rader de comparison of Tanit wouwd be to Hera and to Juno, regaw goddesses of marriage, or to de goddess Artemis of chiwd-birf and de hunt.[243] Tertuwwian (c. 160 – c.220), de Christian deowogian and native of Cardage, compared Tanit to Ceres, de Roman moder goddess of agricuwture.[244]
Tanit has awso been identified wif dree different Canaanite goddesses (aww being sisters/wives of Ew): de above 'Astarte; de virgin war goddess 'Anat; and de moder goddess 'Ewat or Asherah.[245][246][247] Wif her being a goddess, or symbowizing a psychic archetype, accordingwy it is difficuwt to assign a singwe nature to Tanit, or cwearwy to represent her to consciousness.[248]
A probwematic deory derived from sociowogy of rewigion proposes dat as Cardage passed from being a Phoenician trading station into a weawdy and sovereign city-state, and from a monarchy anchored to Tyre into a native-born Libyphoenician owigarchy, Cardaginians began to turn away from deities associated wif Phoenicia, and swowwy to discover or syndesize a Punic deity, de goddess Tanit.[249] A parawwew deory posits dat when Cardage acqwired as a source of weawf substantiaw agricuwturaw wands in Africa, a wocaw fertiwity goddess, Tanit, devewoped or evowved eventuawwy to become supreme.[216] A basis for such deories may weww be de rewigious reform movement dat emerged and prevaiwed at Cardage during de years 397-360. The catawyst for such dramatic change in Punic rewigious practice was deir recent defeat in war when wed by deir king Himiwco (d. 396) against de Greeks of Siciwy.[250]
Such transformation of rewigion wouwd have been instigated by a faction of weawdy wand owners at Cardage, incwuding dese reforms: overdrow of de monarchy; ewevation of Tanit as qween goddess and decwine of Baaw Hammon; awwowance of foreign cuwts of Greek origin into de city (Demeter and Kore); decwine in chiwd sacrifice, wif most votive victims changed to smaww animaws, and wif de sacrifice not directed for state purposes but, when infreqwentwy done, performed to sowicit de deity for private, famiwy favors. This bowd historicaw interpretation understands de reformer's motivation as "de reaction of a weawdy and cuwtured upper cwass against de primitive and antiqwated aspects of de Canaanite rewigion, and awso a powiticaw move intended to break de power of a monarchy which ruwed by divine audority." The reform's popuwarity was precarious at first. Later, when de city was in danger of imminent attack in 310, dere wouwd be a marked regression to chiwd sacrifice. Yet eventuawwy de cosmopowitan rewigious reform and de popuwar worship of Tanit togeder contributed to "breaking drough de waww of isowation which had surrounded Cardage."[251][252][253]
"When de Romans conqwered Africa, Cardaginian rewigion was deepwy entrenched even in Libyan areas, and it retained a great deaw of its character under different forms." Tanit became Juno Caewestis, "and Caewestis was supreme at Cardage itsewf untiw de triumph of Christianity, just as Tanit had been in pre-Roman times." [237] Regarding Berber (Libyan) rewigious bewiefs, it has awso been said:
"[Berber] bewief in de powers of de spirits of de ancestors was not ecwipsed by de introduction of new gods—Hammon, or Tanit—but existed in parawwew wif dem. It is dis same duawity, or readiness to adopt new cuwturaw forms whiwe retaining de owd on a more intimate wevew, which characterizes de [Roman era]."[254]
Such Berber ambivawence, de abiwity to entertain muwtipwe mysteries concurrentwy, apparentwy characterized deir rewigion during de Punic era as weww. After de passing of Punic power, de great Berber king Masinissa (r. 202–148), who wong fought and chawwenged Cardage, was widewy venerated by water generations of Berbers as divine.[255]
Attested first miwwennium BC[edit]
- Adonis
- Chusor
- Dagon
- Eshmun-Mewqart
- Gebory-Kon (Gebory = gabri? Kon = Chiun/Kiyun/Kaiwan/Saturn?)
- Mewqart
- Miwkashtart
- Reshef-Shed
- Shed-Horon
- Tanit-Astarte
Attested second miwwennium BC[edit]
- Amen (Amun)
- Asherah
- Astarte
- Baawat Gebaw ("Lady of Bybwos")
- Baaw Shemen
- Ew
- Eshmun
- Hadad (Baaw Saphon, de Bibwicaw Baaw)
- Haiw[citation needed]
- Europa consort of Zeus
- Isis
- Osiris
- Shed
- Venerabwe Reshef (Reshef of de Arrow)
Foreign rewations[edit]
The Phoenicians were uniqwewy positioned between dree earwy cradwes of civiwization: Greece, Egypt, and Mesopotamia.[42] Their mastery of seafaring brought dem into contact wif far more peopwes dan deir contemporaries, whiwe deir peacefuw pursuit of trade meant dey generawwy maintained good rewations wif dose dey encountered. Foreign affairs were nearwy awways driven by commerciaw interests, which faciwitated de exchange of ideas, cuwture, science, and technowogy. To advance deir trading interests, Phoenician merchants estabwished wong-wasting rewationships wif deir foreign counterparts, which furdered dipwomatic and cuwturaw rewations.[49] The Phoenicians are known to have estabwished encwaves in Greece and Egypt, wikewy for de same purpose.[256]
Rawwinson observed dat "adaptabiwity and pwiabiwity of de Phoenicians was especiawwy shown in deir power of obtaining de favourabwe regard of awmost aww de peopwes and nations wif which dey came into contact, wheder civiwised or unciviwised." Even when de Phoenicians came under foreign ruwe, dey generawwy fared better dan oder subjugated peopwes, even being granted a certain degree of autonomy. Very often deir uniqwe mastery of shipbuiwding, navigation, and trade meant dey couwd weverage dese skiwws in de service of deir suzerain; dis was best documented during de era of Persian ruwe.
Infwuence in de Mediterranean region[edit]
Phoenician cuwture had a major effect on de cuwtures of de Mediterranean basin in de earwy Iron Age, and had been affected by dem in turn, uh-hah-hah-hah. The recovery of de Mediterranean economy after de wate Bronze Age cowwapse can be credited to Phoenician mariners and merchants, who re-estabwished wong distance trade between Egypt and Mesopotamia in de 10f century BC. The Phoenicians served as intermediaries between de disparate civiwizations dat spanned de Mediterranean and Near East, faciwitating de exchange of not onwy goods, but knowwedge, cuwture, and rewigious traditions. Their expansive and enduring trade network is credited wif waying de foundations of an economicawwy and cuwturawwy cohesive Mediterranean, which wouwd be continued by de Greeks and especiawwy de Romans.[257]
As de first known expworers of de Mediterranean, many countries and cities around de Mediterranean derive deir names from de Phoenician wanguage.
- Awtiburus, Awgeria (soudwest of Cardage) From Phoenician: Iwtabrush
- Bosa, Sardinia: From Phoenician Bis'en
- Cádiz, Spain: From Phoenician Gadir
- Dhawi (Idawion), Cyprus: From Phoenician Idyaw
- Erice, Siciwy: From Phoenician Eryx
- Mawta: From Phoenician Mawat ("refuge")
- Marion,Cyprus: From Phoenician Aymar
- Oued Dekri, Awgeria: From Phoenician: Idiqra
- Spain: From Phoenician: I-Shaphan, meaning "Land of Hyraxes". Later Latinized as Hispania
- Cardage, Tunisia: From Phoenician Qart Hadašt meaning "New City"
- Cartagena, Spain ((Greek: Νέα Καρχηδόνα; Latin: Cardago Nova; Spanish: Cartagena)): A cowony of Cardage, which awso gave rise to Cartagena, Cowombia
Rewations wif de Egyptians[edit]
The owdest record of de Phoenicians comes from Egyptian sources. Though initiawwy vassaws of Egypt during de Bronze Age, in de centuries fowwowing de Late Bronze Age cowwapse, de Phoenicians usuawwy maintained rewativewy amicabwe rewations wif Egypt, dough dis varied by dynasty. According to de account of Wenamun, dated c. 1000 BC, initiaw rewations were centered on de procurement of de Lebanon's prized cedar wood. This is best iwwustrated by de existence of a Phoenician settwement and tempwe in de capitaw city of Memphis, despite de Egyptians being generawwy intowerant of foreigners.[258] The Phoenicians were awso heaviwy infwuenced by Egyptian cuwture, particuwarwy wif respect to artistic conventions and motifs.[42]
Rewations wif de Greeks[edit]
Phoenician ties wif de Greeks ran deep. The earwiest verified rewationship appeared to have began wif de Minoan civiwization on Crete (1950–1450 BC), which togeder wif de Mycenaean civiwization (1600–1100 BC) is considered de progenitor of cwassicaw Greece. Fernand Braudew identified Minoan Crete as a bridge between East and West, isowated from de "[barbaric] Aegean worwd" and dus forced to "[wook] towards Cyprus, Ugarit, and Bybwos."[259] Archaeowogicaw research suggests dat de Minoans graduawwy imported Near Eastern goods, artistic stywes, and customs drough de Phoenicians, who by de dird miwwennium BC had become major sea traders and de principaw bearers of Egyptian, Mesopotamian, and oder Eastern cuwtures.
An inscription in Sidon by de sufet Diomitus, dating to de wate dird century BC, boasts of his chariot race victory at de Nemean Games in Greece, which earned him powiticaw favor among de Greeks as "de first of de citizens" to do so.[260]
The Phoenicians were given deir name by de Greeks due to deir trade: Their most famous trading product was purpwe dye, cawwed phoenos by de Greeks.[261] Between de 20f and 15f centuries BC, de Canaanites/Phoenicians traded wif de Minoans untiw de watter's cowwapse.[262] Towards de end of de Bronze Age, dere was trade between de Levant, Egypt, Cyprus, and Greece. The Uwu Buwurun shipwreck discovered off de coast of Turkey contained Canaanite storage pottery awong wif pottery from Cyprus and Greece. There are awso Greek accounts of Phoenician traders arriving to port wif "trinkets and baubwes."[109] The Greeks regarded de Phoenicians as skiwwed metaw workers, and in de eighf century BC sent envoys to de Levant for metaw goods.[263]
The height of Phoenician trade was roughwy between de sevenf and eighf centuries BC. There is a dispersaw of imports (ceramic, stone, and faience) from de Levant dat traces a Phoenician commerciaw channew to de Greek mainwand via de centraw Aegean, uh-hah-hah-hah.[263] Adens shows wittwe evidence of dis trade wif few eastern imports, but oder Greek coastaw cities are rich wif eastern imports.[264]
Aw Mina, wocated in Syria, is embwematic of de trade dat took pwace between de Greeks and de Phoenicians.[265] It is deorized dat by de eighf century BC, traders from de Greek iswand of Euboea estabwished a commerciaw enterprise wif de Levantine coast, wif Aw Mina as deir base; however, de veracity of dese cwaims remains disputed.[264]
The Phoenician phonetic awphabet was adopted and modified by de Greeks probabwy in de eighf century BC (around de time of de hippoi depictions). This most wikewy did not come from a singwe instance but from a cuwmination of commerciaw exchange.[261] This suggests a prior a rewationship between de Greeks and de Phoenicians. Though dere is no evidence to support de suggestion, it is probabwe dat during dis period dere was awso a passing of rewigious ideas.[266] The wegendary Phoenician hero Cadmus is credited wif bringing de awphabet to Greece, but it is more pwausibwe dat it was brought by Phoenician immigrants to Crete,[267] whence it graduawwy diffused nordwards.
Connections wif Greek mydowogy[edit]
Severaw prominent Greek mydowogicaw figures are Phoenician, most notabwy Cadmus, son of King Agenor of Tyre, who Herodotus credits wif bringing de Phoenician awphabet to Greece around 2000 BC:[268][269]
These Phoenicians who came wif Cadmus and of whom de Gephyraeans were a part brought wif dem to Hewwas, among many oder kinds of wearning, de awphabet, which had been unknown before dis, I dink, to de Greeks. As time went on de sound and de form of de wetters were changed.
Cadmus was de first Greek hero—and awong wif Perseus and Bewwerophon, de greatest hero before Heracwes—as weww as de wegendary founder of Thebes, one of de most powerfuw and infwuentiaw Greek city-states. Heracwes was inspired by de Phoenician god Mewqart, whom de Greeks sometimes cawwed de Tyrian Heracwes, and was venerated eqwawwy.[270] Various Mediterranean ports during de cwassicaw period hosted Phoenician tempwes sacred to Mewqart, which de Greeks recognized as sacred to Heracwes. An inscription in Mawta, made by Tyrians between de second and dird centuries BC, was dedicated to Heracwes/Mewqart in bof Phoenician and Greek.
Anoder prominent Phoenician in Greek mydowogy is Europa, one of de most famous consorts of Zeus and de moder of King Minos of Crete, who is sometimes depicted as de sister of Cadmus. They have severaw oder sibwings dat pway prominent rowes in Greek mydowogy, and who in some incarnations are rewated to Poseidon, uh-hah-hah-hah. The integration of Phoenician figures into Greek mydowogy, often in a heroic or priviweged position, suggests some degree of Greek affinity towards de Phoenicians.
The cuwt of Mewicertes was most wikewy introduced by Phoenician navigators on de coasts and iswands of de Aegean and Mediterranean.[271] The Greeks bewieved he was a native of Boeotia, where Phoenician infwuences were strong; at Tenedos in modern Turkey, he was appeased by de sacrifice of chiwdren, which seems to point to his identity wif Mewqart.
In de Phoenician rewigion, de tripartite division between Baaw, Mot and Yamm seems to have infwuenced de Greek division between Zeus, Hades and Poseidon.[272] It is possibwe dat Poseidon/Neptune was directwy inspired by a Phoenician counterpart; whiwe such a figure is documented as being revered by Phoenician merchants and saiwors, a singuwar name has yet to be found.[273] However, dere are names for sea gods from individuaw city states, most notabwy Yamm from Ugarit, whom some schowars have identified wif Poseidon, awdough oders wink him to Pontus.[274] Yamm is de broder of de god of deaf, Mot, whose Greek eqwivawent, Hades, is de broder of Poseidon, uh-hah-hah-hah.[275] Yamm is in cosmic confwict wif Baaw, de storm god of Ugaritic myf who is often associated wif Zeus. Though nominawwy de god of de sea, Yamm truwy represents chaos, directwy opposing de order represented by Baaw.[276] In Ugaritic myf, Baaw overcomes Yamm; in some versions, Yamm is kiwwed, but in oders, de goddess Adtart (Astarte) intervenes to save Yamm, advising dat he remain in his own province for being defeated.
Greek accounts and attitudes[edit]
The Greeks had varying dispositions to de Phoenicians, generawwy expressing an ambivawence for deir mercantiwe cuwture. In de Repubwic, Pwato contends dat de wove of money is a tendency of de souw found among Phoenicians and Egyptians, which distinguishes dem from de Greeks, who tend towards de wove of knowwedge.[277] In his Laws, he asserts dat dis wove of money has wed de Phoenicians and Egyptians to devewop skiwws in cunning and trickery (πανουργία) rader dan wisdom (σοφία).[278]
Such a view is expressed in Homer's Odyssey, where de Phoenicians are described as skiwwed saiwors and artisans, but awso "greedy knaves".[279] By contrast, de Iwiad conveys apparent Greek affinity for Phoenician craftsmanship. Hecuba, in seeking her best gown as a sacrifice to de goddess Adena, chooses one embroidered by "Sidonian" women; Achiwwes offers de fastest man in a race a Sidonian boww as a prize.[157] Xenophon speaks favorabwy about de sophistication and orderwiness of Phoenician ships, whiwe Aristotwe regards Cardage as a modew of meritocracy: "Cardage, as is cwear, suppwied de principaw criterion by which to measure success."[280]
In his Histories, Herodotus gives de Persian and Greek accounts of a series of kidnappings dat wed to de Trojan War. Whiwe docked at a trading port in Argos, de Phoenicians kidnapped a group of Greek women, incwuding King Idacus' daughter, Io. The Greeks den retawiated by kidnapping Europa, a Phoenician, and water Medea. The Greeks refused to compensate de Phoenicians for de additionaw abduction, a fact dat Paris used a generation water to justify de abduction of Hewen from Argos. The Greeks den retawiated by waging war against Troy. After Troy's faww, de Persians considered de Greeks to be deir enemy.[281]
Notwidstanding dese mixed views, centuries of oderwise amicabwe cuwturaw and commerciaw ties between de Phoenicians and Greeks—wif commonawities such as a maritime tradition, sewf governing city states, and mydowogicaw figures—meant de two peopwes were sometimes regarded as "rewatives".[282]
Rewations wif de Israewites[edit]
Despite being notoriouswy bewwigerent towards deir neighbors, de Israewites apparentwy took exception to de Phoenicians, especiawwy dose of Tyre. King Hiram of Tyre is credited wif hewping buiwd Sowomon's Tempwe, providing materiaws and skiwwed craftsmen; in exchange, Sowomon paid tribute and even ceded some territory.[283] As Rawwinson notes, de Jewish Bibwe describes many more exampwes of cordiaw rewations between de peopwes:
Hiram's friendwy deawings wif David and Sowomon are weww known; but de continued awwiance between de Phoenicians and de Israewites has attracted wess attention, uh-hah-hah-hah. Sowomon took wives from Phoenicia; Ahab married de daughter of Idobawus, king of Sidon; Phoenicia furnished timber for de second Tempwe; Isaiah wound up his prophecy against Tyre wif a consowation; our Lord found faif in de Syro-Phoenician woman; in de days of Herod Agrippa, Tyre and Sidon stiww desired peace wif Judæa, "because deir country was nourished by de king's country."[284]
Ancient sources[edit]
In de Bibwe[edit]
Hiram (awso spewwed Huran), de king of Tyre, is associated wif de buiwding of Sowomon's tempwe. 1 Kings 5:1 says: "Hiram king of Tyre sent his servants to Sowomon; for he had heard dat dey had anointed him king in de pwace of his fader: for Hiram was ever a wover of David." 2 Chronicwes 2:14 says: "The son of a woman of de daughters of Dan, and his fader [was] a man of Tyre, skiwwfuw to work in gowd, siwver, brass, iron, stone, timber, royaw purpwe (from de Murex), bwue, and in crimson, and fine winens; awso to grave any manner of graving, and to find out every device which shaww be put to him ..."
In Masonic wore, Hiram Abiff is de architect of Sowomon's tempwe and a centraw figure Masonic rituaws and mydowogy.
Later, reforming prophets raiwed against de practice of drawing royaw wives from among foreigners: Ewijah execrated Jezebew, de princess from Tyre in Souf Lebanon who became a consort of King Ahab and introduced de worship of her god Baaw.
Long after Phoenician cuwture fwourished, or Phoenicia existed as a powiticaw entity, Hewwenized natives of de region where Canaanites stiww wived were referred to as "Syro-Phoenicians", as in de Gospew of Mark: "The woman was a Greek, a Syro-phoenician by birf".[285]
The word Bibwe itsewf derives from Greek bibwion, which means "book" and eider derives from, or is de (perhaps uwtimatewy Egyptian) origin of Bybwos, de Greek name of de Phoenician city Gebaw.[286]
Tarshish (Hebrew: תַּרְשִׁישׁ) occurs in de Hebrew Bibwe wif severaw uncertain meanings, dough de most common interpretation is dat it was a pwace, probabwy a city or country, dat is far from de Land of Israew by sea where trade occurs wif Israew and Phoenicia. It is where de Phoenicians reportedwy obtained different metaws, particuwarwy siwver, during de reign of Sowomon, uh-hah-hah-hah. The Septuagint, de Vuwgate and de Targum of Jonadan render Tarshish as Cardage, but oder bibwicaw commentators read it as Tartessos, perhaps in Iberia.[287][288] The discovery of de Nora Stone and Nora Fragment on Sardinia suggests dis might be de wocation, as de former mentions Tarshish in its Phoenician inscription, uh-hah-hah-hah. The 2003 discovery of de Cisjordan Corpus in de Levant, de wargest cowwection of hacksiwver in de contemporary Mediterranean, wends furder support to dis deory. Dated between 1200 and 800 BC,[289] de objects in dese Phoenician hoards dispway wead isotope ratios dat match ores in Sardinia and Spain, uh-hah-hah-hah.[47] This metawwic evidence agrees wif de bibwicaw account of Tarshish suppwying Sowomon wif siwver via Phoenicia. Assyrian records indicate Tarshish was an iswand, whiwe a poetic construction of Psawm 72 points to its identity as a warge iswand in de west, wikewy de iswand of Sardinia.[47]
Due to de paucity of written records from de Phoenicians demsewves, deir civiwization was wong overshadowed by dose of neighboring Greece, Egypt, and Mesopotamia. Beginning in de earwy 1960s, new and reexamined discoveries by schowars and archaeowogists have shed more wight on de Phoenicians and deir contributions and achievements.[290][290]
The most widewy known wegacy was deir devewopment and transmission of an awphabet droughout de Mediterranean, which formed de basis of de Greek awphabet, from which de widewy used Latin script derives. The Phoenician awphabet was innovative for its "egawitarian" nature, providing a simpwe writing system dat did not reqwire a smaww caste of professionaw scribes, priests, and officiaws, as in Egypt or Mesopotamia.[42] It couwd be written on a variety of media and was easy to wearn due to its fixed nature, awwowing for easier communication across cwasses and cuwtures.[42] In addition to faciwitating commerciaw rewations—and dus weading to de exchange of goods and ideas dat brought prosperity to de region—it has been argued dat de Phoenician awphabet proved pivotaw to de progress of civiwization as a whowe:
The awphabeticaw (wike de numericaw) system is how societies organize information, uh-hah-hah-hah. Beyond witeracy and systematization, de awphabet stimuwates bof abstract and rationaw dought drough de phonetic coding and decoding process. As a resuwt, de adoption of Phoenician wetters—especiawwy in Ionia and Adens—created an intewwectuaw environment for de devewopment of Greek, and, subseqwentwy, Western science.[42]
Andropowogist Rawph Linton argues dat de Phoenician's "main rowe in de devewopment of de Greek and oder Mediterranean cuwtures was as intermediaries between Asia and Europe."[291] This was aided by deir wocation at de crossroads of de major civiwizations in de Near East. As one of de few civiwizations to emerge from de Late Bronze Age cowwapse rewativewy unscaded, de Phoenicians wed de way in reopening trade routes dat connected de Egyptian, Greek, and Mesopotamian civiwizations. As de region's dominant seafarers and traders weww into de Iron Age, de Phoenicians maintained an unparawwewed commerciaw network dat revitawized de region and contributed to de "civiwizationaw devewopment of de Mediterranean basin, uh-hah-hah-hah."[42] Historian Jerry H. Bentwey argues dat dis Phoenician-wed fwourishing of maritime commerce awso furdered de economic, sociaw, and cuwturaw integration of de Mediterranean, weading to unprecedented ties and exchanges between oderwise distinct civiwizations.[292]
The Greeks and Romans eventuawwy emuwated de Phoenician modew, waying de foundation of de "Mediterranean as a singwe economic, powiticaw, and cuwturaw unit." Hans G. Niemeyer cwaims de Phoenicians "sparked Western civiwization" drough deir "transfusion of Eastern goods, technowogies, and ideas dat, in turn, became de foundations of Greco-Roman civiwization, uh-hah-hah-hah."[293] He awso credits Phoenicia for de "dissemination of urban civiwization, in de propagation of technicaw innovations, in de distribution of new [aristocratic] wifestywe paradigms and 'modern' economics." The Phoenician mercantiwe system encouraged de division of wabor and accumuwation of weawf dat awwowed for state-buiwding, a modew dat was adopted by organized states from Greece to Spain, uh-hah-hah-hah.[294] These contributions were awso acknowwedged by deir contemporaries.[42]
In addition to various manufactured goods and resources, Phoenician traders imparted de West wif Mesopotamian astronomicaw and madematicaw ideas and Egyptian architecturaw and artistic stywes. The "Orientawising" trend water seen in Greek art is attributed to de Phoenicians, whose own artistic tradition was an amawgamation of different cuwtures. The forerunner of Ionic order and ashwar masonry, which remain stapwes of cwassicaw architecture droughout de West, was de Proto-Aeowic capitaw devewoped by Phoenicians. Simiwarwy, Bronze Age Phoenicians devewoped wime mortar from which de Greeks created true cement and de Romans produced concrete.[295]
Historian of science Leonid Zhmud observes "Semitic borrowings" and "Orientaw infwuence" wif respect to de weights, measures, and madematicaw cawcuwations utiwized by de Greeks.[296] The abacus, which emerged in de fiff century BC and was widespread untiw de wate 18f century, wikewy reached Greece from Phoenicia.[297]
As de earwiest known peopwe to engage in expansive maritime trade and seafaring, de Phoenicians devewoped numerous navaw and navigationaw innovations dat were adopted by neighboring societies. The bireme, a muwti-tiered oared vessew, was created some time in de eighf century BC and became common droughout de Mediterranean region, eventuawwy being evowved by de Romans. As de first peopwe to have expwored beyond de Straits of Gibrawtar, and de first to cowonise de western Mediterranean in any significant way, de Phoenicians inspired simiwar maritime ventures by de Greeks and Romans. Beginning in de eighf century BC, de Greek city-states of Euboea and Corinf pioneered cowonization by wearning shipbuiwding, navigation techniqwes, and trade routes from de Phoenicians.[298] Fowwowing contact wif de Phoenicians in de tenf century BC, de Etruscans and oder Itawic peopwes wearned de Phoenician medods of cewestiaw navigation, weights and measures, and even finance, which centuries water were used and devewoped by de Romans.[42]
Long after de Phoenicians ceased to be an independent civiwization, deir descendants remained infwuentiaw figures in various discipwines, and were often aware of deir Phoenician roots. Zeno of Citium, de founder of Stoicism, was wikewy of Phoenician heritage.[299] Roman Cardage, an earwy epicenter of Christianity, produced some of de earwiest and most infwuentiaw Christian deowogians, such as Tertuwwian and Augustine of Hippo, who were of Punic / Phoenician heritage.
See awso[edit]
- ^ Sometimes rendered "Wen-Amon"
- ^ The fuww wist incwudes "Cyprus and Souf Turkey; den Crete; den Mawta and East Siciwy; den Souf Sardinia, Ibiza, and Soudern Spain; and, finawwy, Coastaw Tunisia and cities wike Tingris [sic] in Morocco." Sampwes from oder areas wif significant Phoenician settwements, such as Libya and soudern France, couwd not be incwuded.
- ^ Thus rendered in Latin by Livy 30.7.5, attested in Punic inscriptions as SPΘM /ʃuftˤim/, meaning "judges" and obviouswy rewated to de Bibwicaw Hebrew ruwer titwe Shophet "Judge"
- ^ Greek and Roman audors more commonwy referred to dem as "kings". SPΘ /ʃufitˤ/ might originawwy have been de titwe of de city's governor, instawwed by de moder city of Tyre.
- ^ Jerry H. Bentwey; Herbert F. Ziegwer (2000). Traditions & Encounters: From de Beginnings to 1500. McGraw Hiww. ISBN 978-0-07-004949-9.
By about 2500 b.c.e. Phoenician merchants and ships awready dominated trade in de Mediterranean basin, uh-hah-hah-hah.
- ^ Phoenicia was never a unified powiticaw unit, but consisted of independent city states woosewy awigned by cuwture, wanguage, and rewigion, uh-hah-hah-hah.
- ^ María Eugenia Aubet (6 September 2001). The Phoenicians and de West: Powitics, Cowonies and Trade. Cambridge University Press. pp. 18, 44. ISBN 978-0-521-79543-2.
- ^ Cardage and de Cardaginians, R Bosworf Smidp16
- ^ "Phoenicia". Cowwins Engwish Dictionary.
- ^ KITTO, John (1851). A Cycwopedia of Bibwicaw Literature. Adan and Charwes Bwack.
- ^ Mawaspina, Ann (2009). Lebanon. Infobase Pubwishing. ISBN 978-1-4381-0579-6.
- ^ Paowo Xewwa, 2017, Phoenician Inscriptions in Pawestine, in U. Hübner and H. Niehr (eds.), Sprachen in Pawästina im 2. und 1. Jahrtausend v. Chr., ADPV 43, Wiesbaden 2017, 153-169; "First of aww, it is necessary to state dat, instead of speaking of "Phoenicians in Pawestine", it is much more correct to speak of "Soudern Phoenicians". In oder words, we must simpwy invert our modern and unfounded perspective, which is conditioned by current powitics. Particuwarwy as far as regions wike Upper Gawiwee or de Pwain of Sharon are concerned, it is not a qwestion of "strangers" who settwe abroad and decide to wive beyond de borders of deir country. Instead, it is about peopwe who are and feew demsewves at home dere. As Manfred Weippert remarked some years ago, it concerns de fact dat "Phönizier in dem Bereich, den wir heute 'Pawästina' nennen, und gerade auch in Gawiwäa, dem natürwichen Hinterwand von Tyrus, ein wichtiges Bevöwkerungsewement waren". [Transwation: Phoenicians in what we now caww 'Pawestine', and especiawwy in Gawiwee, de naturaw hinterwand of Tyre, were an important ewement of de popuwation]"
- ^ Jigouwov, Vadim S. (2016-04-08). The Sociaw History of Achaemenid Phoenicia: Being a Phoenician, Negotiating Empires. Routwedge. ISBN 978-1-134-93809-4.
- ^ Hornbwower, Simon; Spawforf, Antony; Eidinow, Esder (2014-09-11). The Oxford Companion to Cwassicaw Civiwization. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-101676-9.
- ^ "Who Were The Phoenicians? | History Today". www.historytoday.com. Retrieved 2020-04-20.
- ^ Scott, John C. (2018) "The Phoenicians and de Formation of de Western Worwd,"Comparative Civiwizations Review: Vow. 78 : No. 78 , Articwe 4, https://schowarsarchive.byu.edu/ccr/vow78/iss78/4; The Phoenicians, who were Semites, emerged as a distinct Canaanite group around 3200 B.C. Hemmed in by de Lebanon Mountains, deir first cities were Bybwos, Sidon, Tyre, and Aradus
- ^ Josephine Quinn (11 December 2017). In Search of de Phoenicians. Princeton University Press. pp. 24, 204. ISBN 978-1-4008-8911-2.
My answer to de qwestion Moscati posed in 1963 is dat noding did in fact unite de Phoenicians in deir own eyes or dose of deir neighbors, and dat his Phoenician peopwe, or civiwization, or nation, is not actuawwy a reaw historicaw object, but rader a product of de schowarwy and powiticaw ideowogies I have discussed in dis chapter. Such modern ideas about de ancient Phoenicians are doroughwy interwoven wif ideas about de modern nation-state. That does not in itsewf, of course, mean dat dey cannot awso be true. But de picture presented by our ancient sources is very different... In de end, it is modern nationawism dat has created de Phoenicians, awong wif much ewse of our modern idea of de ancient Mediterranean, uh-hah-hah-hah.
- ^ Aubet (2001), p. 17.
- ^ "Phoenicia". Retrieved 2017-08-09. Unknown parameter
|encycwopedia=ignored (hewp)
- ^ Josephine Quinn (11 December 2017). In Search of de Phoenicians. Princeton University Press. pp. 201, 203. ISBN 978-1-4008-8911-2.
- ^ Gwenn Markoe, Phoenicians, University of Cawifornia Press (Jan 1, 2000), pp. 10-12.
- ^ a b Markoe (2000) p. 111
- ^ a b Fischer, Steven Roger (2004). A history of writing. Reaktion Books. p. 90.
- ^ Hans G. Niemeyer, "The Phoenicians and de Birf of a Muwtinationaw Mediterranean Society," in Commerce and Monetary Systems in de Ancient Worwd, ed. Robert Rowwinger and Christoph Uwf (Stuttgart: Franz Stiener Verwag, 2004), 246, 250.
- ^ "Henry George Liddeww, Robert Scott, A Greek-Engwish Lexicon, φοῖνιξ". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2017-02-03.
- ^ Gove, Phiwip Babcock, ed. Webster's Third New Internationaw Dictionary of de Engwish Language Unabridged. Springfiewd, MA: Merriam-Webster, 1993.
- ^ Robert S. P. Beekes, Etymowogicaw Dictionary of Greek, Briww, 2009, p. 1583.
- ^ Françoise Briqwew-Chatonnet and Éric Gubew, Les Phéniciens : Aux origines du Liban, cowwection « Découvertes Gawwimard » (nº 358). Paris: Gawwimard, 1999, p. 18.
- ^ Aubet Semmwer, María Eugenia (2001). The Phoenicians and de West: Powitics, Cowonies and Trade. Cambridge University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-521-79543-2.
- ^ Mireiwwe Hadas-Lebew, Entre wa Bibwe et w'Histoire : Le Peupwe hébreu, cowwection « Découvertes Gawwimard » (nº 313). Paris: Gawwimard, 1997, p. 14.
- ^ B. Landesberger has shown dat kinaḫḫu shouwd be read as qinaḫḫu and was borrowed from Sumerian qìn (compare Akk uqnû, Ugaritic iqnu, Syrian qʿnâʿ(a)/qwnʿ(a), and Gk kýanos 'dark bwue').
- ^ a b c Krahmawkov, Charwes R. (2000-11-28). A Phoenician-Punic Grammar. BRILL. p. 1. ISBN 9789004294202.
- ^ Eusebius, Praeparatio evangewica, Book 1 chapter 10 section 10, Egypt's Pwace in Universaw History: An Historicaw Investigation in Five Books. Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans. 1860. p. 268.
- ^ R. A. Donkin (1998). Beyond Price: Pearws and Pearw-fishing : Origins to de Age of Discoveries, Vowume 224. p. 48. ISBN 0-87169-224-4.
- ^ Bowersock, G.W. (1986). "Tywos and Tyre. Bahrain in de Graeco-Roman Worwd". In Khawifa, Haya Awi; Rice, Michaew (eds.). Bahrain Through The Ages – de Archaeowogy. Routwedge. pp. 401–2. ISBN 0-7103-0112-X.
- ^ Ju. B. Tsirkin, uh-hah-hah-hah. "Canaan, uh-hah-hah-hah. Phoenicia. Sidon" (PDF). p. 274. Archived from de originaw (PDF) on 2017-10-10. Retrieved 2013-11-30.
- ^ Arnowd Heeren, p441
- ^ Rice, Michaew (1994). The Archaeowogy of de Arabian Guwf. Routwedge. p. 20. ISBN 0-415-03268-7.
- ^ Rice (1994), p. 21.
- ^ Zarins, Juris (1992). "Pastoraw Nomadism in Arabia: Ednoarchaeowogy and de Archaeowogicaw Record—A Case Study". In Bar-Yosef, O.; Khazanov, A. (eds.). Pastorawism in de Levant. Madison: Prehistory Press. ISBN 0-9629110-8-9.
- ^ Tubb, Jonadan N. (1998), "Canaanites" (British Museum Peopwe of de Past)
- ^ Woodard, Roger (2008). The Ancient Languages of Syria-Pawestine and Arabia. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68498-9.
- ^ Gwenn Markoe, Phoenicians, University of Cawifornia Press (2000),pp. 1-19.
- ^ Robert Stiegwitz, "The Geopowitics of de Phoenician Littoraw in de Earwy Iron Age," Buwwetin of de American Schoows of Orientaw Research 129 (1990): 9.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k w m n o p q r Scott, John C. (2018) "The Phoenicians and de Formation of de Western Worwd," Comparative Civiwizations Review: Vow. 78 : No. 78 , Articwe 4, https://schowarsarchive.byu.edu/ccr/vow78/iss78/4
- ^ Couwmas, Fworian, Writing Systems of de Worwd, Bwackweww Pubwishers Ltd, Oxford, 1989.
- ^ Wiwwiam H. Barnes, Studies in de Chronowogy of de Divided Monarchy of Israew (Atwanta: Schowars Press, 1991) 29-55.
- ^ Ricardo Duchesne, The Uniqweness of Western Civiwization (2011), p. 77, www.bibotu.com/books/2012/Th%20e%20Uniqweness%20of%20Western%20Civiwization, uh-hah-hah-hah.pdf
- ^ Chamorro, Javier G. (1987). "Survey of Archaeowogicaw Research on Tartessos". American Journaw of Archaeowogy. 91 (2): 197–232. doi:10.2307/505217. JSTOR 505217.
- ^ a b c Thompson, C.; Skaggs, S. (2013). "King Sowomon's Siwver? Soudern Phoenician Hacksiwber Hoards and de Location of Tarshish". Internet Archaeowogy. 35 (35). doi:10.11141/ia.35.6.
- ^ The Phoenicians: A Captivating Guide to de History of Phoenicia and de Impact Made by One of de Greatest Trading Civiwizations of de Ancient Worwd, Captivating History (Dec.16, 2019), ISBN 9781647482053.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j The Phoenicians: A Captivating Guide to de History of Phoenicia and de Impact Made by One of de Greatest Trading Civiwizations of de Ancient Worwd, Captivating History (Dec.16, 2019), ISBN 9781647482053.
- ^ 2 Samuew 5:11, 1 Kings 5:1, and 1 Chronicwes 14:1. See awso Book of Isaiah (Isaiah 23), Book of Jeremiah (25:22, 47:4), Book of Ezekiew (Ezekiew 26–28), Book of Joew (Joew 3:4–8), and Book of Amos (Amos 1:9–10)
- ^ a b James B. Pritchard, The Phoenicians: Sources for Their History, Princeton University Press (1978), p. 25https://www.jstor.org/stabwe/j.ctt7zvjcs.7,
- ^ James B. Pritchard, introduction to The Sea Traders, by Maitwand A. Edey (New York: Time-Life Books, 1974), p. 7.
- ^ Hoffman, Joew M. (2004). In de beginning : a short history of de Hebrew wanguage. New York, NY [u.a.]: New York Univ. Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-8147-3654-8. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
- ^ Markoe (2000), p. 108.
- ^ Zewwig Sabbettai Harris. A grammar of de Phoenician wanguage. p6. 1990
- ^ Edward Cwodd, Story of de Awphabet (Kessinger) 2003:192ff
- ^ The Devewopment of de Greek Awphabet widin de Chronowogy of de ANE (2009), Quote: "Naveh gives four major reasons why it is universawwy agreed dat de Greek awphabet was devewoped from an earwy Phoenician awphabet.
1 According to Herodutous "de Phoenicians who came wif Cadmus... brought into Hewwas de awphabet, which had hiderto been unknown, as I dink, to de Greeks."
2 The Greek Letters, awpha, beta, gimmew have no meaning in Greek but de meaning of most of deir Semitic eqwivawents is known, uh-hah-hah-hah. For exampwe, 'aweph' means 'ox', 'bet' means 'house' and 'gimmew' means 'drow stick'.
3 Earwy Greek wetters are very simiwar and sometimes identicaw to de West Semitic wetters.
4 The wetter seqwence between de Semitic and Greek awphabets is identicaw. (Naveh 1982)"
- ^ Couwmas (1989) p. 141.
- ^ The date remains de subject of controversy, according to Gwenn E. Markoe, "The Emergence of Phoenician Art" Buwwetin of de American Schoows of Orientaw Research No. 279 (August 1990):13–26) p. 13. "Most schowars have taken de Ahiram inscription to date from around 1000 B.C.E.", notes Edward M. Cook, "On de Linguistic Dating of de Phoenician Ahiram Inscription (KAI 1)", Journaw of Near Eastern Studies 53.1 (January 1994:33–36) p. 33 JSTOR. Cook anawyses and dismisses de date in de dirteenf century adopted by C. Garbini, "Suwwa datazione dewwa'inscrizione di Ahiram", Annawi (Istituto Universitario Orientawe, Napwes) 37 (1977:81–89), which was de prime source for earwy dating urged in Bernaw, Martin (1990). Cadmean Letters: The Transmission of de Awphabet to de Aegean and furder West before 1400 BC. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-0-931464-47-8. Arguments for a mid 9f -8f century B.C.E. date for de sarcophagus rewiefs demsewves—and hence de inscription, too— were made on de basis of comparative art history and archaeowogy by Edif Porada, "Notes on de Sarcophagus of Ahiram," Journaw of de Ancient Near East Society 5 (1973:354-72); and on de basis of paweography among oder points by Ronawd Wawwenfews, "Redating de Bybwian Inscriptions," Journaw of de Ancient Near East Society 15 (1983:79–118).
- ^ "Phoenicia | historicaw region, Asia". Retrieved 2017-08-09. Unknown parameter
|encycwopedia=ignored (hewp)
- ^ a b Gerhard Herm, The Phoenicians, trans. Caderine Hiwwer (New York: Wiwwiam Morrow, 1975), p. 80.
- ^ a b Gerhard Herm, The Phoenicians, trans. Caderine Hiwwer (New York: Wiwwiam Morrow, 1975), p. 80.
- ^ a b c Karw Moore and David Lewis, Birf of de Muwtinationaw (Copenhagen: Copenhagen Business Schoow Press, 1999), p. 85.
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- ^ "Lebanon - Assyrian and Babywonian domination of Phoenicia". Encycwopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-04-22.
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- ^ a b c d Jacob Katzenstein, Tyre in de Earwy Persian Period (539-486 B.C.E.) The Bibwicaw Archaeowogist, Vow. 42, No. 1 (Winter, 1979), p. 31, www.jstor.org/stabwe/3209545.
- ^ a b Herodotus. The Histories, Book III. pp. §19.
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- ^ "Awexander's Siege of Tyre, 332 BCE". Ancient History Encycwopedia. Retrieved 2019-03-07.
- ^ Fergus Miwwa, The Phoenician Cities: A Case-Study of Hewwenisation, University of Norf Carowina Press (2006), pp. 36-37, www.jstor.org/stabwe/10.5149/9780807876657_miwwar.8
- ^ Miwwar, The Hewwenistic Worwd and Rome, p. 40: "It does, however, have some significance, if onwy iwwustrative, dat at weast some Phoenicians abroad continued to compose and inscribe texts in Phoenician, uh-hah-hah-hah. At Demetrias, for exampwe, dree men from de dird century, aww wif Greek names— one from Sidon, one from Arados, and one from Kition—have weft brief inscriptions in Phoenician, uh-hah-hah-hah. In Adens we have a biwinguaw Greek-Phoenician inscription giving a fine exampwe of eqwivawence, or semi-eqwivawence, in deophoric names."
- ^ Miwwar, p. 34: "Phoenician cuwture seems in some sense to have spread inwand as weww as overseas in de Hewwenistic period, as Punic cuwture did awso in Norf Africa after This fact brings Phoenician cuwture into connection wif de famiwiar phenomenon of de fusion of Greek and non-Greek deities in Syria, or awternativewy de survivaw of non-Greek cuwts in a Hewwenised environment. There is nowhere where it appears more vividwy before us dan in Herodian's description of de cuwt of Ewagabaw at Emesa; what is significant is dat Herodian dought dat ''Ewagabaw'' was a Phoenician name and dat Juwia Maesa was '"by origin a Phoinissa""
- ^ Miwwar, p. 50: Secondwy, and more important, when de Phoenicians began to expwore de storehouse of Greek cuwture, dey couwd find, among oder dings, demsewves, awready credited wif creative rowes—not aww of which, as it happens, were purewy wegendary. If some aspects were just wegend, wike de story of Kadmos, what is cwear is dat de Phoenicians adopted it (perhaps, wike de wegend of Aeneas in Itawy, very earwy) and made it deir own, uh-hah-hah-hah. In doing so dey acqwired bof an extra past and a reinforcement of deir historicaw identity; and dey awso simuwtaneouswy gained acceptance as being in some sense Greeks
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Luís Fraga da Siwva (2003). "Tavira: Cidades e Região antes de Portugaw" (PDF). Associação Campo Arqweowógico de Tavira (in Portuguese). From Campo Arqweowógico de Tavira
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- ^ A. J. Graham (2001). Cowwected Papers on Greek Cowonization. Briww. p. 226. ISBN 978-90-04-11634-4. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
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- ^ Eric H. Cwine; Mark W. Graham (27 June 2011). Ancient Empires: From Mesopotamia to de Rise of Iswam. Cambridge University Press. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-521-88911-7. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
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- ^ Carw Wawdman; Caderine Mason (2006). Encycwopedia of European Peopwes. Infobase Pubwishing. p. 586. ISBN 978-1-4381-2918-1. Retrieved 23 February 2013.
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- ^ Phiwwip Chiviges Naywor (1 Juwy 2009). Norf Africa: A History from Antiqwity to de Present. University of Texas Press. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-292-77878-8. Retrieved 23 February 2013.
- ^ B. K. Swartz; Raymond E. Dumett (1 January 1980). West African Cuwture Dynamics: Archaeowogicaw and Historicaw Perspectives. Wawter de Gruyter. p. 236. ISBN 978-3-11-080068-5. Retrieved 17 February 2013.
- ^ P. D. A. Garnsey; C. R. Whittaker (15 February 2007). Imperiawism in de Ancient Worwd: The Cambridge University Research Seminar in Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-521-03390-9. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
- ^ P. Roberts (1 October 2004). HSC Ancient History. Pascaw Press. p. 64. ISBN 978-1-74125-179-1. Retrieved 17 February 2013.
- ^ Stephen Stockweww, "Before Adens: Earwy Popuwar Government in Phoenician and Greek City States," Geopowitics, History, and Internationaw Rewations 2 (2010): 123.
- ^ a b Stephen Stockweww, Geopowitics, History, and Internationaw Rewations , Vow. 2, No. 2 (2010), pp. 123- 135
- ^ a b Stephen Stockweww, "Before Adens: Earwy Popuwar Government in Phoenician and Greek City States," Geopowitics, History, and Internationaw Rewations 2 (2010): 129.
- ^ a b Aristotwe (5 November 2012). Powitics: A Treatise on Government. CreateSpace Independent Pubwishing Pwatform. p. 97. ISBN 978-1-4802-6588-2. Retrieved 11 February 2013.
- ^ Richard Miwes (21 Juwy 2011). Cardage Must Be Destroyed: The Rise and Faww of an Ancient Civiwization. Penguin, uh-hah-hah-hah. pp. 115–116. ISBN 978-1-101-51703-1. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
- ^ Richard Miwes (21 Juwy 2011). Cardage Must Be Destroyed: The Rise and Faww of an Ancient Civiwization. Penguin, uh-hah-hah-hah. p. 130. ISBN 978-1-101-51703-1. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
- ^ a b c Richard Miwes (21 Juwy 2011). Cardage Must Be Destroyed: The Rise and Faww of an Ancient Civiwization. Penguin, uh-hah-hah-hah. p. 130. ISBN 978-1-101-51703-1. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
- ^ Moises Siwva (11 May 2010). Bibwicaw Words and Their Meaning: An Introduction to Lexicaw Semantics. Zondervan, uh-hah-hah-hah. ISBN 978-0-310-87151-4. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
- ^ Aristotwe. p. 2.11.3–70.
- ^ "They became de first to provide a wink between de cuwture of de ancient Near East and dat of de uncharted worwd of de West…They went not for conqwest as de Babywonians and Assyrians did, but for trade. Profit rader dan pwunder was deir powicy." James B. Pritchard, introduction to The Sea Traders, by Maitwand A. Edey (New York: Time-Life Books, 1974), 7.
- ^ P. D. A. Garnsey; C. R. Whittaker (15 February 2007). Imperiawism in de Ancient Worwd: The Cambridge University Research Seminar in Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-521-03390-9. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
- ^ a b "Powybius • Histories — Book 6". penewope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2020-04-22.
- ^ Couwmas (1996).
- ^ Miwward, A. R. (1986). "The Infancy of de Awphabet". Worwd Archaeowogy. 17 (3): 390–398. doi:10.1080/00438243.1986.9979978.CS1 maint: ref=harv (wink)
- ^ "Ancient Scripts: Proto-Sinaitic". Ancientscripts.com. Archived from de originaw on 2009-02-27.
- ^ "Discovery of Egyptian Inscriptions Indicates an Earwier Date for Origin of de Awphabet". The New York Times. 1999-11-13. Retrieved 2010-05-22.
- ^ "Phoenician awphabet and wanguage".
- ^ Beck, Roger B.; Bwack, Linda; Krieger, Larry S.; Naywor, Phiwwip C.; Shabaka, Dahia Ibo (1999). Worwd History: Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, IL: McDougaw Litteww. ISBN 978-0-395-87274-1.
- ^ a b "Phoenician Art". Ancient History Encycwopedia. Retrieved 2020-04-19.
- ^ "Phoenician Art" (PDF). The New York Times. 1879-01-05. Retrieved 2008-06-20.
- ^ a b "The Phoenicians (1500–300 B.C.)". www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2020-04-19.
- ^ a b Gwenn E. Markoe, The Emergence of Phoenician Art, Buwwetin of de American Schoows of Orientaw Research, No. 279 (Aug., 1990), pp. 13-26, www.jstor.org/stabwe/1357205
- ^ Ewwen Rehm: Der Ahiram-Sarkophag, Mainz 2004 (Forschungen zur phönizisch-punischen und zyprischen Pwastik, hg. von Renate Bow, II.1. Dynastensarkophage mit szenischen Rewiefs aus Bybwos und Zypern Teiw 1.1)
- ^ Gwenn E. Markoe, The Emergence of Phoenician Art, Buwwetin of de American Schoows of Orientaw Research, No. 279 (Aug., 1990), pp. 13-26, www.jstor.org/stabwe/1357205
- ^ 2 Chronicwes.
- ^ Book 6.
- ^ Book 13.
- ^ "Furniture pwaqwe carved in high rewief wif two Egyptianizing figures fwanking a vowute tree, ca. 9f–8f century B.C." www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2020-04-19.
- ^ "Phoenicia, Phoenician Dress, Ornaments and Sociaw Habits". phoenicia.org. Retrieved 2020-04-19.
- ^ Sanford Howst. Phoenician Secrets: Expworing de Ancient Mediterranean (2011), p. 31.
- ^ Sanford Howst, Phoenician Secrets, Santorini Books (2011), p. 44.
- ^ Moscati (1957), e.g., p. 40 & 113.
- ^ W. Robertson Smif, Lectures on de Rewigion of de Semites (Edinburgh: A. & C. Bwack 1889; 2d ed. 1894; 3d ed. 1927); reprint by Meridian Library, New York, 1956, at 1–15.
- ^ Cf. Juwian Bawdick, who posits an even greater and more ancient sweep of a common rewigious cuwture in his Bwack God. Afroasiatic roots of Jewish, Christian, and Muswim rewigions (London: Tauris 1998).
- ^ Gaster (1965), pp. 113–143, 114–5.
- ^ Harden (1962), pp. 83–4.
- ^ Much of what is now known about Canaanite rewigion comes from one source: cuneiform tabwets found in 1928 at tempwe ruins of Ras Shamra (ancient Ugarit). Gaster (1965), pp. 113–143, 114–5.
- ^ a b Brandon (1970), p. 173 ("Canaanite Rewigion").
- ^ Dmitri Baramki, Phoenicia and de Phoenicians (Beirut: Khayats 1961) at 55–58.
- ^ Markoe (2000), pp. 115–142.
- ^ Brandon (1970), pp. 512–513 ("Sacred Prostitution").
- ^ Brandon (1970), p. 448 ("Mowech").
- ^ E.g., wike de earwy Hebrews, in Cardage wittwe importance was attached to de idea of wife after deaf. Warmington (1964), p. 162.
- ^ Brandon (1970), p. 258 ("Ew").
- ^ Cf. Cross (1973), pp. 10–75, i.e., "'Ew and de God of de Faders" (13–43), "Yahweh and 'Ew" (44–75); and pp. 177–186, i.e., "'Ew's modes of revewation" in "Yahweh and Ba'w" (147–194) harvp error: muwtipwe targets (2×): CITEREFCross1973 (hewp)
- ^ Here, Baaw was used instead of de storm god's name Hadad. Brandon (1970), p. 315 ("Hadad"), p. 28 ("Adad – Mesopotamia"), p. 124 ("Baaw").
- ^ Moscati (1957), pp. 113–4.
- ^ Brandon (1970), pp. 29–30 ("Adonis").
- ^ Warmington (1964), p. 156 (as an epidet to hide a god's reaw name).
- ^ Brandon (1970), p. 655 ("YHVH"), p. 173 ("Canaanite Rewigion").
- ^ In Phoenicia and Canaan: de rejuvenating Mewqart was de chief god of Tyre, Eshmun de god of heawing at Sidon, Dagon (his son was Baaw) at Ashdod, Terah de moon god of de Zebuwun. In Mesopotamia: de moon god at Ur was cawwed Sin (Sum: Nanna), de sun god Shamash at Larsa, de fertiwity goddess of Uruk being Ishtar, and de great god of Babywon being Marduk. Brandon (1970), p. 173 ("Canaanite Rewigion"), p. 501 ("Phoenician Rewigion")
- ^ Carwyon, Richard. A Guide to de Gods (New York 1981) pp. 311, 315, 320, 324, 326, 329, 332–3.
- ^ Harden (1962), pp. 85–8.
- ^ Kinship status was not infreqwentwy granted to geneticawwy unrewated persons. Cf., Meyer Fortes, Kinship and de Sociaw Order. The Legacy of Lewis Henry Morgan (Chicago: Awdine 1969) at 256.
- ^ Markoe (2000), p. 120, (MRZH, marzeh).
- ^ Warmington (1964), p. 148.
- ^ Cf., Wiwwiam Robertson Smif, Lectures on The Rewigion of de Semites. Second and Third Series. {1890–1891} (Sheffiewd Academic Press 1995), "Feasts" at 33–43.
- ^ Lancew (1995), p. 193.
- ^ Simiwarwy, diaspora Jews awso sent materiaw support for de second Tempwe in Jerusawem untiw its faww in 70 CE. Cf., Awwen C. Myers, editor, The Eerdmans Bibwe Dictionary (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans 1987), "Tempwe" at 989–992, 991.
- ^ a b Charwes-Picard & Picard (1968), p. 45.
- ^ Warmington (1964), p. 155.
- ^ a b Abun-Nasr, A History of de Maghrib (1971) at 22.
- ^ Warmington (1964), p. 161 (ten ewders, priesdood, Tempwe of Eshmun).
- ^ Lancew (1995), pp. 193–4.
- ^ Markoe (2000), pp. 129–130.
- ^ Warmington (1964), p. 157.
- ^ Warmington (1964), pp. 155–8. Warmington associates Mewqart wif de pan-Semitic fader god Ew. Regarding Baaw Hammon, "de epidet [was] being used to avoid naming de name of de god" (p. 156).
- ^ Lancew (1995), pp. 199–204.
- ^ Cross, Frank Moore (1973). Canaanite Myf and Hebrew Epic. Harvard University Press. pp. 26–28. ISBN 9780674091764. Retrieved 19 January 2017.
- ^ Lancew (1995), pp. 195–6, entertains oder etymowogies for BL HMN. If instead of HMN, one reads HM-N it wouwd signify "protector". One audor finds his origin in de name of a mountain to de norf of Phoenicia, Amanus. Or de name may signify a smaww chapew, rewated to continuity, hence safety. Cf. Lancew (1995), pp. 194–9.
- ^ Markoe (2000), p. 130. Markoe understands Baaw Hammon as simiwar to Dagon, i.e., an agricuwturaw god.
- ^ Cf., Harden (1962), Pwate 41, "Stewe of Baaw endroned from Hadrumetum" (Sousse, Tunisia). Said by Markoe (2000) to represent Baaw Hammon, uh-hah-hah-hah.
- ^ Soren, Khader & Swim (1990) in deir chapter "The Precinct of Deaf" (123–46), discuss rader doroughwy chiwd sacrifice at Cardage. They present archaeowogicaw findings (125–6, 131–9), and cite de works of a dozen ancient audors (126–30), to substantiate its macabre reawity. The audors awso try to understand it from de perspective of its ancient practitioners (130–1, 142–5). They review (139–41) de few modern critics who qwestion wheder in fact de evidence is being misconstrued (e.g., de chiwdren died of oder causes) awdough de audors appear to find dese counter-arguments not convincing enough to refute aww de ancient charges and modern archaeowogy.
- ^ Lancew (1995), pp. 251–6, awso reviews such counter-arguments dat, regarding de bones of smaww chiwdren found in de ashes of funerary furnaces, dey were awready dead when pwaced in de fwames.
- ^ Chiwd sacrifice was offered to Tanit as weww as Baaw Hammon, uh-hah-hah-hah. Soren, Khader & Swim (1990), pp. 63, 123.
- ^ Diodorus Sicuwus, Bibwiodecae Historicae at XX, 14, 4, as cited in Lancew (1995), pp. 197, 249.
- ^ Lancew (1995), p. 197. The novew inspired severaw operas.
- ^ On de symbow of Tanit, cf. Lancew (1995), pp. 201–4. Her symbow may be rewated to de Egyptian symbow of wife, de ankh. Lancew (pp. 201–2), citing Bisi, Anna Maria (1982). "Simbowi animati newwa rewigione fenicio-punica". In Lanternari, Vittorio (ed.). Rewigioni e Civiwtà (in Itawian). 3. Bari: Dedawo. pp. 62–65. ISBN 978-882202203-5.
- ^ In earwy inscriptions her name fowwowed dat of Baaw Hammon, uh-hah-hah-hah. Then her titwe became TNT PN B'L or Tanit Pene Baaw ("Tanit face of Baaw"), and she was named before Baaw Hammon on ex-votos found in de Tophet of Cardage. Lastwy, she awone is indicated. Lancew (1995), pp. 199–200.
- ^ "Tanit face of Baaw" signifies Tanit as de presence of de god Baaw. A simiwar epidet occurs in Hebrew rewigion, e.g., where ML'K PNYW signifies de "angew of de presence" in Exodus 33: 14, and in Isaiah 63: 9. Cross (1973), p. 30 n102 harvp error: muwtipwe targets (2×): CITEREFCross1973 (hewp).
- ^ Charwes-Picard & Picard (1968), p. 153.
- ^ Neumann, Erich, Die Gross Mutter: Eine phänomenowogie der weibwichen gestawtungen des unbewussten (Zürich: Rhein Verwag 1956), transwated by Rawph Mannheim as The Great Moder. An Anawysis of de Archetype (Princeton University: Bowwingen 1955, 2d ed. 1963) at 311, describes a rewief of Tanif carved on a stone stewae (Pwate 157b):
"Thus de winged figure of Tanif, de Cardaginian goddess of heaven, standing beneaf de vauwt of heaven and de zodiac, howds de sun and moon in her hands, and is [fwanked] by piwwars, de symbows of de Great Moder Goddess. But on de wower pwane of de stewe, we find de same goddess stywized wif upraised arms, possibwy as a tree assimiwated to de Egyptian wife symbow. Her head is de sun, an iwwusion to de tree birf of de sun, and she is accompanied by two doves, de typicaw bird of de Great Goddess." The "Egyptian wife symbow" refers to de ankh.
- ^ a b Warmington (1964), pp. 156–7.
- ^ Barton (1934), pp. 304–6:
Here de ancient Berbers were de wocaw Hamitic peopwe.
"It seems probabwe, derefore, dat Tanif was a pre-Phoenician goddess of fertiwity of de Hamites, ...dat she was so popuwar dat after de coming of de Phoenicians dey too worshipped her to such a degree dat she wargewy dispwaced deir native goddess Astart."Barton (1934), p. 305
- ^ Markoe (2000), pp. 118, 130.
- ^ Lancew (1995), p. 200: sevenf century inscription at Sarepta mentions TNT-'STRT, i.e., Tanit-Astarte.
- ^ There is some evidence contra: wate Punic sacerdotaw officiaws were cawwed MTRH ("bridegroom"), indicating de mawe rowe in a "sacred marriage" to promote fertiwity, de "brides" of dis seasonaw rite being femawes of de tempwe; de Hebrew prophet Hosea condemned such rites as "prostitution". Gaster (1965), pp. 113–143, 132.
- ^ Warmington doubts dat tempwe prostitution was "a feature of Cardaginian rewigion, uh-hah-hah-hah." Warmington (1964), p. 157.
- ^ Charwes-Picard & Picard (1968), p. 152, regarding de comparison of Astarte and Tanit.
- ^ Barton (1934), pp. 306, 306n5. Ceres is often identified wif de Greek goddess Demeter (whose name signifies "earf moder").
- ^ Cross (1973), pp. 28–35 harvp error: muwtipwe targets (2×): CITEREFCross1973 (hewp), 'Astarte (29–30), 'Anat (31), and 'Ewat (31–35).
- ^ Patai (1990) describes de goddess 'Anat, and de goddess 'Ewat or Asherah:
"In Ugaritic mydowogy, Anaf is by far de most important femawe figure, de goddess of wove and war, virginaw yet wanton, amorous yet given to uncontrowwabwe outbursts of rage and appawwing acts of cruewty. She is de daughter of Ew, de god of heaven, and of his wife de Lady Asherah of de Sea. ... Her foremost wover was her broder Baaw. ... She was easiwy provoked to viowence and, once she began to fight, wouwd go berserk, smiting and kiwwing weft and right." (60–2), who adds dat de Phoenician Phiwo of Bybwos (64–141) compared Anaf to de Greek virgin war goddess Adena. Awso, Patai at 63–6 identifies Anaf wif de bibwicaw "Queen of Heaven". At 61 Patai, referring to Anaf in her rôwe as goddess of wove, mentions de Babywonian goddess Ishtar, and remarks dat bof Astarte and Anaf as "typicaw goddesses of wove, bof chaste and promiscuous... [were] perenniawwy fruitfuw widout ever wosing deir virginity."
"Asherah was de chief goddess of de Canaanite pandeon, uh-hah-hah-hah... at Ugarit... . ...Asherah figured prominentwy as de wife of Ew de chief god. Her fuww name was 'Lady Asherah of de Sea'--apparentwy her domain proper was de sea, just as dat of her husband Ew was heaven, uh-hah-hah-hah. She was, however, awso referred to simpwy as Ewaf or Goddess. She was de 'Progenitress of de Gods': aww oder gods... were her chiwdren, uh-hah-hah-hah... . Asherah was a moderwy goddess... ." Patai (1990), pp. 36–7. In his chapter "The Goddess Asherah" (34–53), Patai discusses widespread Hebrew worship of Asherah untiw de 6f century B.C.E. Patai (52–3) notes ancient inscriptions (one found near Hebron) evidencing an earwy Jewish association of Asherah wif Yahweh, a view repugnant to water ordodox Judaism.
- ^ Brandon (1970), p. 76 ("Anat"), p. 107 ("Asherah" and "Ashtart").
- ^ Jung (1969), pp. 3–41, 23: modern psychowogy understands "de gods as psychic factors, dat is, as archetypes"; pp. 151–81, 160–1, (The Psychowogy of de Chiwd Archetype – 1940):
It is an "iwwusion dat an archetype can be finawwy expwained and disposed of. Even de best attempts at expwanation are onwy more or wess successfuw transwations into anoder metaphoricaw wanguage. ... The most we can do is dream de myf onwards and give it a modern dress. And whatever [our] expwanation or interpretation does to it, we do to our souws as weww, wif corresponding resuwts for our own weww being. ... Hence de "expwanation" shouwd awways be such dat de functionaw significance of de archetype remains unimpaired, so dat an adeqwate and meaningfuw connection between de conscious mind and de archetype is assured. ... It represents or personifies certain instinctive data of de dark, primitive psyche, de reaw but invisibwe roots of consciousness." ... "The archetype... is a psychic organ present in aww of us. ... There is no 'rationaw' substitute for de archetype any more dan dere is for de cerebewwum or de kidneys."
- ^ Compare Lancew (1995), pp. 202–3.
- ^ Lancew (1995), p. 114: Himiwco's acts of sacriwege and his subseqwent miwitary defeat in Siciwy, water his penance and suicide at Cardage; dereafter, introduction to Cardage of Greek goddesses Demeter and Kore.
- ^ Charwes-Picard & Picard (1968), pp. 146–54.
- ^ Lancew (1995), pp. 202–3, shows his criticism of de deory dat Tanit was adopted in Cardage when it passed from monarchy to owigarchy.
- ^ Giovanni Garbini, "Continuità ed innovazioni newwa rewigione fenicia" in Atti dew cowwoqwio in Roma: wa rewigione fenicia (Roma 1981) pp 34–6. Cited by Lancew (1995), p. 203, as advancing de deory of rewigious change re Tanit.
- ^ Brett, Michaew; Fentress, Ewizabef (1997). The Berbers. Wiwey-Bwackweww. p. 49.
- ^ Theodor Mommsen, Römische Geschichte, band 5 (Leipzig 1885, 5f ed. 1904), transwated as The Provinces of de Roman Empire (London 1886, 1909; reprint Barnes & Nobwe 1996) at 305, citing de ancient Christian audors Cyprian and Tertuwwian.
- ^ "History of Phoenicia by George Rawwinson". www.gutenberg.org. Retrieved 2020-04-23.
- ^ Jerry H. Bentwey, "Sea and Ocean Basins as Frameworks for Historicaw Anawysis," Geographicaw Review 89 (1999): 215-219.
- ^ Rawwinson, "It is most remarkabwe dat de Egyptians, intowerant as dey usuawwy were of strangers, shouwd have awwowed de Phoenicians to settwe in deir soudern capitaw, Memphis, and to buiwd a tempwe and inhabit a qwarter dere." History of de Phoenicians, www.gutenberg.org/fiwes/2331/2331-h/2331-h.htm#wink2H_4_0021
- ^ Fernand Braudew, Memory and Mediterranean, trans. Sian Reynowds (New York: Awfred A. Knopf, (2001), 112-113.
- ^ Miwwar, Fergus (1983). "The Phoenician Cities: A Case-Study of Hewwenisation". Proceedings of de Cambridge Phiwowogicaw Society. 209 (29): 55–71. doi:10.1017/S0068673500004508. JSTOR 44696895.
- ^ a b Moscati (1965).
- ^ Sanford Howst, "Minoans and Phoenicians: Indigenous Devewopment versus Eastern Infwuence," presented at Cawifornia State University, Long Beach, on June 24, 2006,
- ^ a b "Canaan and Ancient Pawestine". University of Pennsywvania Museum of Archaeowogy and Andropowogy. 1999. See awso Gawwery.
- ^ a b Markoe (2000), p. 174.
- ^ Boardman, John (1964). The Greeks Overseas. London: Thames and Hudson, uh-hah-hah-hah.CS1 maint: ref=harv (wink)
- ^ Scott B. Noegew, "Greek Rewigion and de Ancient Near East, " The Bwackweww Companion to Greek Rewigion London: Bwackweww, Daniew Ogden, ed. (2006), 21-37.
- ^ L.H.Jeffery. (1976).The archaic Greece.The Greek city states 700–500 BC.Ernest Benn Ltd&Tonnbridge.
- ^ Herodotus, The Histories, II.145.4.
- ^ Markoe (2000), p. 112.
- ^ "Mewqart | Phoenician deity". Encycwopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-04-20.
- ^ Edouard Wiww, summarizing de debate in 1955, concwuded in Korindiaka (1955:169 note 3) dat Mewicertes was whowwy Greek.
- ^ Mark S. Smif (1994). The Ugaritic Baaw Cycwe: Vowume I, Introduction wif text, transwation and commentary of KTU 1.1–1.2. BRILL. p. 94. ISBN 978-90-04-09995-1.
- ^ Ribichini, S. (1988). "Bewiefs and Rewigious Life". In Sabatino Moscati (ed.). The Phoenicians. Miwan: Gruppo Editoriawe Fabbri. pp. 104–25.
- ^ Baumgarten, A.I. (1981). The Phoenician History of Phiwo of Bybwos: A Commentary. Briww. p. 207. ISBN 978-90-04-06369-3.
- ^ Ringgren, H. 1917. Rewigions of de Ancient Near East. Phiwadewphia: The Westminster Press
- ^ Habew, N.C. 1964. Yahweh Versus Baaw: A Confwict of Rewigious Cuwtures. New York: Bookman Associates
- ^ Pwato, Repubwic, IV (435e–436a)
- ^ Pwato Laws V (747c)
- ^ Benjamin Isaac, The Invention of Racism in Cwassicaw Antiqwity, p. 325.
- ^ Eric S. Gruen, Redinking de Oder in Antiqwity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011), 199-120.
- ^ Herodotus, The History, I.1.1–5.
- ^ Miwwar, p. 50: Secondwy, and more important, when de Phoenicians began to expwore de storehouse of Greek cuwture, dey couwd find, among oder dings, demsewves, awready credited wif creative rowes—not aww of which, as it happens, were purewy wegendary. If some aspects were just wegend, wike de story of Kadmos, what is cwear is dat de Phoenicians adopted it (perhaps, wike de wegend of Aeneas in Itawy, very earwy) and made it deir own, uh-hah-hah-hah. In doing so dey acqwired bof an extra past and a reinforcement of deir historicaw identity; and dey awso simuwtaneouswy gained acceptance as being in some sense Greeks
- ^ "Hiram | king of Tyre". Encycwopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-04-23.
- ^ George Rawwinson (22 Juwy 2005). Phoenicia: History of a Civiwization. Bwoomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-84511-019-2.
- ^ 7:26
- ^ Onwine Etymowogy Dictionary, s.v. "Bibwe". Retrieved November 27, 2012.
- ^ Awbright, W.F. (1941). "New wight on de earwy history of Phoenician cowonization". Buwwetin of de American Schoows of Orientaw Research. 83 (83): 14–22. doi:10.2307/3218739. JSTOR 3218739.
- ^ Cross, Frank M. (1972). "An interpretation of de Nora Stone". Buwwetin of de American Schoows of Orientaw Research. 208 (208): 13–19. doi:10.2307/1356374. JSTOR 1356374.
- ^ Thompson, C.M. (2003). "Seawed siwver in Iron Age Cisjordan and de 'invention' of coinage". Oxford Journaw of Archaeowogy. 22 (1): 67–107. doi:10.1111/1468-0092.00005.
- ^ a b "Modern Phoenician studies were waunched during de earwy 1960's by Sabatino Moscati and de Itawian schoow. By de seventies dere was an emphasis on de Phoenician expansion" Scott, John C. (2018) "The Phoenicians and de Formation of de Western Worwd," Comparative Civiwizations Review: Vow. 78 : No. 78 , Articwe 4.
- ^ Rawph Linton, The Tree of Cuwture (New York: Awfred A. Knopf, 1956), 341.
- ^ Jerry H. Bentwey, "Sea and Ocean Basins as Frameworks for Historicaw Anawysis," Geographicaw Review 89 (1999): 215-219.
- ^ Hans G. Niemeyer, "The Phoenicians and de Birf of a Muwtinationaw Mediterranean Society," in Commerce and Monetary Systems in de Ancient Worwd, ed. Robert Rowwinger and Christoph Uwf (Stuttgart: Franz Stiener Verwag, 2004), 246, 250.
- ^ Susan Sherratt and Andrew Sherratt, "The Growf of de Mediterranean Economy in de Earwy First Miwwennium BC," Worwd Archeowogy 24 (1993): 367, 369.
- ^ Yigaw Shiwoh (1979). The Proto-Aeowic capitaw and Israewite ashwar masonry. Institute of Archaeowogy, Hebrew University of Jerusawem
- ^ Leonid Zhmud, Pydagoras and de Earwy Pydagoreans, trans. Kevin Windwe and Rosh Irewand (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 250.
- ^ O.A.W. Diwke, Madematics and Measurement (Berkewey: University of Cawifornia Press, 1987), 21.
- ^ Richard A. Biwwows, Maradon (New York: Overwook Duckworf, 2010), 61-62.
- ^ Diogenes Laërtius, vii. 3
- Aubet, Maria Eugenia (2001). The Phoenicians and de West: Powitics, Cowonies and Trade. Transwated by Turton, Mary. Cambridge University Pres. ISBN 978-0-521-79543-2.CS1 maint: ref=harv (wink) See Review by Roger Wright, University of Liverpoow.
- Barton, George Aaron (1934). Semitic and Hamitic Origins. Sociaw and Rewigious. Phiwadewphia: University of Pennsywvania.CS1 maint: ref=harv (wink)
- Bondi, S. F. 1988. "The Course of History." In The Phoenicians, edited by Sabatino Moscati, 38–45. Miwan: Gruppo Editoriawe Fabbri.
- Brandon, S.G.F., ed. (1970). Dictionary of Comparative Rewigion. New York City: Charwes Scribner's Son, uh-hah-hah-hah.CS1 maint: ref=harv (wink)
- Charwes-Picard, Giwbert; Picard, Cowette (1968). The Life and Deaf of Cardage. New York City: Tapwinger. (Originaw French ed.: Vie et mort de Cardage Paris: Hatchette 1968)CS1 maint: ref=harv (wink)
- Couwmas, Fworian (1996). The Bwackweww Encycwopedia of Writing Systems. Oxford: Bwackweww. ISBN 978-0-631-21481-6.CS1 maint: ref=harv (wink)
- Cross, Frank M. (1973). Canaanite Myf and Hebrew Epic. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674091764.CS1 maint: ref=harv (wink)
- Cunwiffe, Barry (2008). Europe Between de Oceans; 9000 BC-AD 1000. New Haven, CT: Yawe University Press.CS1 maint: ref=harv (wink)
- Ewayi, J. 2013. Histoire de wa Phénicie. Paris: Perrin
- Gaster, Theodor H. (1965). "The Rewigion of de Canaanites". In Ferm, Vergiwius (ed.). Ancient Rewigions. New York City: Citadew Pres. (Originaw ed.: Phiwosophicaw Library 1950)CS1 maint: ref=harv (wink)
- Gordon, C. H. 1966. Ugarit and Minoan Crete. New York: W.W. Norton & Company
- Harden, Donawd (1962). The Phoenicians. New York, NY: Frederick A. Praeger.CS1 maint: ref=harv (wink)
- Heard, C. Yahwism and Baawism in Israew & Judah (3 May 2009)
- Herodotus (1910). The History of Herodotus. Transwated by Rawwinson, George. London: J.M. Dent & Sons. "Onwine version". Internet Cwassic Archive.
- Herodotus (1920). The Histories. Transwated by Godwey, Awfred D. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. "Onwine version". Perseus Digitaw Library.
- Homer. 6f century BC (perhaps 700 BC). The Odyssey. Transwated by Stanwey Lombardo. Indianapowis: Hackett Pubwishing Company.
- Jung, Carw G. (1969). Archetypes and de Cowwective Unconscious [sic]. The Cowwected Works of C. G. Jung. 9-I. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-069109761-9.CS1 maint: ref=harv (wink)
- Lancew, Serge (1995). Cardage. A History. Oxford: Bwackweww. (Originaw ed. in French: Cardage. Paris: Librairie Ardeme Fayard 1992)CS1 maint: ref=harv (wink)
- Markoe, Gwenn E. (2000). Peopwes of de Past: Phoenicians. Berkewey, CA: University of Cawifornia Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22614-2.CS1 maint: ref=harv (wink)
- Mikawson, J.D. 2005. Ancient Greek Rewigion. Mawden: Bwackweww pubwishing
- Moscati, Sabatino (1957). Ancient Semitic Civiwizations. London, Engwand: Ewek Books.CS1 maint: ref=harv (wink)
- Moscati, Sabatino (1965). The Worwd of de Phoenicians. New York, NY: Frederick A. Praeger.CS1 maint: ref=harv (wink)
- Ovid. 1st century AD. Metamorphoses. Transwated by Rowfe Humphries. Bwoomington: Indiana University Press.
- Patai, Raphaew (1990) [1967]. The Hebrew Goddess. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press.CS1 maint: ref=harv (wink)
- Rawwinson, George, 1989, "History of Phoenicia"; Googwe Archives.
- W. Röwwig (1995), Phoenician and de Phoenicians in de context of de Ancient Near East, in S. Moscati (ed.), I Fenici ieri oggi domani : ricerche, scoperte, progetti, Roma, p. 203-214
- Soren, David; Khader, Aicha B.; Swim, Hedi (1990). Cardage. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.CS1 maint: ref=harv (wink)
- Urqwhart, David, "Mount Lebanon"; Googwe Archives
- Warmington, Brian H. (1964). Cardage. Penguin (originaw ed.:Robert Hawe 1960).CS1 maint: ref=harv (wink)
Furder reading[edit]
- Carayon, Nicowas, Les ports phéniciens et puniqwes, PhD Thesis, 2008, Strasbourg, France.
- Cerqweiro, Daniew, Las Naves de Tarshis o qwiénes fueron wos Fenicios, Buenos Aires, Ed. Peq. Venecia, 2002, ISBN 987-9239-13-X.
- Cioffi, Robert L., "A Pawm Tree, a Cowour and a Mydicaw Bird" (review of Josephine Quinn, In Search of de Phoenicians, Princeton, 2017, 360 pp., ISBN 978 0 691 17527 0), London Review of Books, vow. 41, no. 1 (3 January 2019), pp. 15–16.
- Rawwinson, George, The History of Phoenicia, 1889, avaiwabwe onwine under Project Gutenberg. Rawwinson's 19f-century text needs updating for modern improvements in historicaw understanding.
- Thiowwet, Jean-Pierre, Je m'appewwe Bybwos, foreword by Guy Gay-Para, H & D, Paris, 2005, ISBN 2-914266-04-9.
- Todd, Mawcowm; Andrew Fweming (1987). The Souf West to AD 1,000 (Regionaw history of Engwand series No.:8). Harwow, Essex: Longman, uh-hah-hah-hah. ISBN 978-0-582-49274-5., for a criticaw examination of de evidence of Phoenician trade wif de Souf West of de U.K.
- Siwva, Diógenes. "La witeratura sobre fenicios en ew territorio brasiweño: orígenes y razones", PhD Thesis, Madrid - 2016. Avaiwabwe in https://eprints.ucm.es/39468/
Externaw winks[edit]
|Library resources about
- BBC Radio4 – In Our Time: The Phoenicians (audio archive)
- The qwest for de Phoenicians in Souf Lebanon
- Phoenician Awphabet
- Sam Hasewby (ed.). "Phoenicia: An imaginary friend to nations in need of ancestors". Josephine Quinn, associate professor in ancient history at Worcester Cowwege, University of Oxford. Aeon, uh-hah-hah-hah.
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