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The National Communications Commission (NCC) might shut down the Telecom Technology Center (TTC) after lawmakers claimed its employees were being paid to do "absolutely nothing," NCC Chairperson Su Herng (蘇蘅) said yesterday.
"We have evaluated the possibility [of closing the center]. If necessary, we will shut it down," Su said at a meeting of the legislature's Transportation Committee.
A presentation by Chinese Nationalist Party (KMT) Legislator Luo Shu-lei (羅淑蕾) had showed that while TTC chief executive Lin Ying-dar (林盈達) was a full-time employee at the center, he had several other part-time jobs at other organizations.
"He is employed full-time at TTC, yet he hardly visits the office," Luo said.
Luo said that Lin's total monthly pay might amount to as much as NT$350,000 and he accused the commission of nurturing a "fat cat."
In her presentation, Luo said the office was almost always empty during office hours, adding that TTC employees were often chatting on MSN Messenger or posting messages on Plurk and Facebook.
Luo said one TTC employee who is paid NT$32,000 a month was only doing one thing at work — ordering lunchboxes for everybody.
"The government has given the center NT$2.3 billion over the past six years," Luo said. "Look how we have spent taxpayers' money."
In response, Su said the commission would investigate the matter.
The center was set up as a research institution under the Directorate-General of Telecommunications, which was merged with the commission in 2006.
Lin, who also attended the meeting, said Luo's allegations about his monthly salary were incorrect.
"I was temporarily transferred from National Chiang Tung University to help reorganize the center," Lin said. "I only get paid by TTC and my salary from the university has been suspended and it will only resume when I return."
Lin said he is paid NT$230,000 a month by TTC, which includes his salary and other stipends.
Lin said the center had several main functions, including maintaining the database for the Mobile Number Portability Service. It is also charged with inspecting and testing electronic devices and doing telecoms policy research for the commission, he said.
Lin said he would look into Luo's accusations, but he also said that it was possible that the missing employees were at laboratories testing new devices.
Lin said Luo may have been given false information by disgruntled former employees who he fired when he assumed his position.
Lin said the center has an annual revenue of about NT$220 million and that more than half of that is spent on personnel. The average salary is NT$50,000 a month.
"We are aiming to reduce costs by cutting salaries by an average of 15 percent," he said.
SPEEDING ELETRIC VEHICLES: Available without license requirements, the low-cost vehicles, especially if illicitly modified, can often reach a dangerous speed The government should crack down on illegal electric bicycles and scooters, the non-profit Consumers' Foundation said on Friday, citing research on the potentially dangerous speed of the vehicles. Electric bicycles and lightweight electric scooters have gained popularity as they do not require registration and riders do not need licenses, the foundation said, adding that as many as 40 percent of them can reach speeds exceeding the legal limit of 25kph for non-licensed two-wheelers. Some consumers also purchased legal electric vehicles and modified them to reach higher speeds, it said. "If the government does not step up efforts to confiscate these
NEW CASE REPORTED: A man who returned from South Africa on a flight with the nation's 460th and 461st cases has now tested positive for the disease The Central Epidemic Command Center (CECC) yesterday said that there is no need to test all arrivals to the nation for COVID-19, a policy the Executive Yuan supports. The center reported one new imported case, bringing the nation's tally of confirmed cases to 477. The new case is a Taiwanese man in his 60s who on July 25 returned from South Africa, said Centers for Disease Control (CDC) Deputy Director-General Chuang Jen-hsiang (莊人祥), who is also the CECC's spokesman. The man had returned to Taiwan on the same flight as cases Nos. 460 and 461, reported on July 27, Chuang said. On July 24,
More than half of Taiwan's middle-aged population, those aged between 40 and 64, have at least one of the "three highs" — high blood pressure, high blood lipids or high blood sugar — and an unhealthy waist size, the Health Promotion Administration (HPA) said, adding that more than 30 percent also have metabolic syndrome. The HPA, the Taiwan Millennium Health Foundation and local health departments are cooperating to encourage people to regularly measure their waist circumference and keep it at a healthy size — no more than 90cm for adult men and no more than 80cm for adult women. Taichung Veterans General
'RELIABLE PARTNER': US Secretary of Health and Human Services Alex Azar praised the 'Taiwan model,' saying that the nation brought its spirit to its COVID-19 response The first memorandum of understanding (MOU) on health cooperation between the Ministry of Health and Welfare and the US Department of Health and Human Services was yesterday signed at the Centers for Disease Control in Taipei. The memorandum was signed between the American Institute in Taiwan (AIT) and the Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office in the US, by AIT Director Brent Christensen and Taiwan Council for US Affairs Chairperson Jen-ni Yang (楊珍妮). US Secretary of Health and Human Services Alex Azar and Minister of Health and Welfare Chen Shih-chung (陳時中) witnessed the signing of the memorandum, designed to enhance the nations'


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Stanly County Schools will provide lunch and breakfast for the next morning meals to students at NO COST via regular bus routes for all schools. Drive through options, determined by USDA guidelines of area eligibility, will be at the following eight school sites:
East Albemarle, Central, Badin, AHS, AMS, Norwood, South Stanly MS, and Stanfield.
Drive through locations will operate Monday through Friday from 11:00-1:00. Drive throughs will be located in the above schools' car rider line with the exception of Badin which will be located in the back parking lot on Boyden Street.
Buses will run their normal routes between 10:00-2:00. A school messenger will be sent when the school route begins, and Here Come the Bus app can be utilized for more exact times! The bus will stop at normally scheduled stops and all students should come to the bus to pick up meals.


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An End-to-end Approach to Precision Medicine
FoundationOne CDx was recently approved to identify mutations that lead to MET exon 14 skipping in advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and match patients with a new targeted therapy, which was approved in parallel. Learn more about how this approval demonstrates the power of cancer precision medicine in action and the role that comprehensive genomic profiling plays.
From the Foundation Forward Blog
August 05, 2020
Informing the Patient Journey with Deep Genomic Insights
May 18, 2020
An End-To-End Approach To Precision Medicine: MET Exon 14 Skipping Mutations In Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC) | Foundation Medicine
May 01, 2020
The Future of TMB as a Predictor of Immunotherapy Response Depends on Harmonization
April 21, 2020
Liquid Biopsy: From an Improbable Idea, New Potential Emerges | Foundation Medicine
March 23, 2020
The Role of Comprehensive Genomic Profiling in Colorectal Cancer | Foundation Medicine


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Select Size (3) : Small
Key Features
Crackled with skilled precision, the Artemide Meteorite Ceiling/Wall Light features a blown glass diffuser formed with a rigorous production process. The glass is molded, frosted, sandblasted and then acid-etched, giving the shade an uneven texture made most apparent when lit. Once lit, the lines of shadow reveal the rocky profile, breaking up the uniformity of the ambient light. The Meteorite can be installed as a wall sconce or ceiling flushmount.
Since 1959, Artemide has created a wide array of modern table lamps, floor lamps, wall sconces and suspensions. Technologically advanced, and with styles ranging from clean and refined to sculptural and avant garde, many Artemide designs--especially the Tolomeo and Tizio--have become icons of contemporary lighting design.
- Steel and technopolymer base
- Glass is created with molding, frosting, sandblasting and acid-etching techniques
- Can be installed on the wall or ceiling
- Dimmable 2-Wire (only with dimmable bulbs; dimmer not included)
- Designed by Pio & Tito Toso in 2015
- Finish: White
- Material: Hand-blown double layer artistic glass
- UL Listed
- Warranty: 1 year
- Made In Italy
- Small Option: One 4 Watt (300 Lumens) 120 Volt E12 Candelabra Base LED Lamp(s) (Not Included)
- Medium Option: One 72 Watt (1490 Lumens) 120 Volt E26 Medium Base Halogen Lamp(s) (Not Included)
- Large Option: One 72 Watt (1490 Lumens) 120 Volt E26 Medium Base Halogen Lamp(s) (Not Included)
Compare Brightness:
LumensThe amount of light that comes from a bulb, which has commonly been measured in watts. The more lumens, the brighter the bulb.
WattageA measurement of the power delivered to a component of an electric circuit (allowing a one-ampere current to flow through the component under the pressure of 1 volt.)
Bulb ShapeBulb shapes are denoted with a letter, which describes the shape, and a number, which indicates the size. The number indicates the diameter of the light bulb at its widest part in eighths of an inch.
BaseThe part of the bulb that connects to the fixture and its power supply. Bulb bases are denoted with the letter E, and a number which indicates the diameter of the bulb base at its widest part in millimeters.
VoltageIndicates how much voltage a bulb can accept via the fixture it's installed in.
Light Color TemperatureThe relative color from a light source, measured on the Kelvin temperature scale. Warm light is lower in color temperature (2700-3000 K) and cool, blue light is higher (5000 K).
Average Rated LifeThe average amount time that a bulb is expected to last.
CRICRI = color rendering index. This number, which can go from 0 to 100, measures the ability of a light or bulb accurately renders colors. The higher the number, the better, with most quality bulbs these days measuring at least in the 80s.
- Small Option Fixture: Depth 5.44", Diameter 5.88"
- Medium Option Fixture: Depth 12.06", Diameter 13.75"
- Large Option Fixture: Depth 16.93", Diameter 18.88"
Manufacturer IDs: view
California Residents: Prop 65 regulations
California Proposition 65
WARNING: This product can expose you to lead, which is known in the State of California to cause cancer, birth defects or other reproductive harm. For more information go to www.p65warnings.ca.gov
Proposition 65 de la Californie
AVERTISSMENT: ce produit peut vous exposer au plomb, ce qui est reconnu par l'État de Californie comme cause de cancer, d'anomalies congénitales ou d'autres domages à la reproduction. Pour plus d'informations, visitez www.p65warnings.ca.gov
Prop. 65 de California
ADVERTENCIA: Este producto puede explonerlo al plomo, lo cual es conocido en el Estado de California como causante de càncer, defectos de namimiento y ostros daños al sistem reproductivo. Para obeneter mayor información, visite www.p65warnings.ca.gov
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Garage & Yard Sales
1 - 3 of 3 listings
Moving Sale This Saturday 8 - 2 in Hope!Garage & Yard Sales Hope (Bonner County) July 23, 2020 Check with seller
We are moving and have a lot to sell -- household items, furniture, books, stamping and paper craft items, baskets, life jackets and more!
Garage sale Trestle Creek Storage July 31 and August 1Garage & Yard Sales Hope (Bonner County) July 23, 2020 Check with seller
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1510 Ponderosa Drive Sandpoint Saturday, August 1st only from 8am-2pm, no early birds please. Various crafting supplies, home decor, books, housewares, etc. If you are looking for it, we probably have it!
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Kinescope Classification using Mathematical Statistics Methods
The product classification possibilities using technological characteristics, product parameter measurements and information supplied by users are presented in this paper. The classification rule using logistic regression methods was obtained by comparing data arrays of reclamation and non-reclamation items. The precision of proposed rule was discussed. The proposed method was applied to classify colour kinescopes at joint-stock company "Ekranas" in Panevėžys. These methods could be applied to the other products, if the system for gathering and storing information about each product exists. Bibl. 5 (in Lithuanian; summaries in Lithuanian, English and Russian).
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal the right of the first publication with the paper simultaneously licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 (CC BY 4.0) licence.
Authors are allowed to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the paper published in the journal with an acknowledgement of the initial publication in the journal.
Copyright terms are indicated in the Republic of Lithuania Law on Copyright and Related Rights, Articles 4-37.


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Ivanka Trump's personal assistant has tested positive
Sputnik – Despite Donald Trump calling to embark on measures to reverse the corona-induced economic malaise, concerns have mounted about the step as top Secret Service and White House officials are understood to be battling the infection.
Ivanka Trump's personal assistant has tested positive for COVID-19, one of a slew of prominent White House staffers who have been infected with the novel coronavirus, CNN reported citing an unnamed source.
The assistant is reported to have been working from home for the past two months, since the self-isolation measures were introduced, which implies the first daughter hasn't been in personal contact with the staffer in some time.
The assistant joins a range of other employees recently infected with the virus, including Vice President Mike Pence's press secretary and Trump's valet – a Secret Service member who serves the president his meals. Overall about a dozen membersof the Secret Service have been diagnosed with COVID-19, according to Department of Homeland Security documents obtained by Yahoo News.
As the president encourages states to reignite economies and resume regular operations, announcing the gradual easing of lockdown measures, the presence of the virus in the White House has again raised questions of whether top American officials, including the president, have been exposed and are in a risky position.
Over 1.2 million confirmed case have been registered across the US since the onset of the pandemic, including 77,180 related deaths – the highest tally in the world to date, according to fresh Johns Hopkins estimates. The curve suggests there hasn't yet been a plateau in the number of new infections, with the tally continuing to rise, albeit at a slower pace.


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ABINGDON, Va. — A federal grand jury indicted a Marion man on charges related to last month's cross burning in the yard of a neighbor who organized a Black Lives Matter rally in their town in Southwest Virginia.
James Brown, 40, was indicted on charges of lying to federal agents, criminal interference with fair housing based on the victim's race and possessing firearms while unlawfully using a controlled substance, according to a document filed Tuesday with U.S. District Court in Abingdon.
The cross burning was reported in the early morning hours of June 14.
Brown, who is white, is accused of burning a cross in the yard of Travon Brown, a Black teenager who led a Black Lives Matter demonstration June 13. The two are not related.
Federal authorities filed charges against James Brown last month, and a grand jury formally indicted him Tuesday.
At a preliminary hearing June 30, a federal agent told the court that Brown admitted to two witnesses that he burned the cross.
Magistrate Judge Pamela Sargent granted bond at $25,000 at the same hearing and required that he stay away from Travon Brown's family and witnesses.
Travon Brown has since continued his activism and led more than 200 people in a peaceful march earlier this month in Marion.
"When someone burnt that cross in my yard, that motivated me to go harder, that motivated me to go stronger for people of color, for African Americans," he told the Bristol Herald Courier.
The indictment says Brown "burned a cross in front of the house of victims … both of whom were African American."
The new weapons charge stems from incidents on June 26 and July 2. Brown had a .22 caliber revolver and a 410 shotgun, the indictment states. He is "knowingly an unlawful user of a controlled substance," according to the indictment.
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(VIRTUAL SUMMIT) How We Go Back to School
August 19 @ 1:00 pm - 3:00 pm EDT
District and school leaders are confronting difficult, high-stakes decisions as they plan for how and if they will reopen school buildings this fall as the global pandemic rages on. Safety for students and staff members is the chief priority. But with no vaccine or effective treatment yet against COVID-19, no one can be fully shielded from the risk. There are no playbooks for how to do this.
Many of the options and requirements for reopening schools will upend some of the most effective aspects of teaching and learning. Following public health protocols will cost a lot of money, even as school budgets are pummeled by the economic collapse. Managing the anxieties of teachers, students, and parents will require patience, compassion, and careful communication.
To help district and school leaders navigate these monumental decisions, our journalists and expert guests will discuss with you, the Education Week reader, some of the biggest challenges ahead and offer ideas and solutions that you can use and adapt for your districts and schools.


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Tuesday 25th September 2012
|Text too small?
Wall Street was mixed as Apple failed to meet the demand for its iPhone5 model, while the latest data on German business confidence showed an unexpected decline.
Apple sold more than five million of its new iPhone5 model, a number that fell short of some expectations. It wasn't due to a lack of popularity however; demand simply exceeded initial supply and that didn't sit well with analysts and investors.
"We believe that sales could have potentially been much higher if not for supply constraints," William Power, an analyst with Baird Equity Research, wrote in a note, according to Reuters.
Shares of Apple were last down 1.3 percent, weighing on the Nasdaq Composite Index, which was last down 0.51 percent.
Also weighing on equity markets on both sides of the Atlantic were fresh European worries as business sentiment in Germany slid for the fifth month in a row and Spain continued to dither about asking for a bailout.
Germany's Ifo institute said its business climate index, based on a survey of 7,000 executives, fell to 101.4 in September from 102.3 in August. Polls of economists by both Bloomberg News and Reuters had forecast an increase.
"There's no magic bullet to this European crisis," Hayes Miller, head of asset allocation in North America at Baring Asset Management, told Bloomberg. "The politicians have been trying to put on a face of unity. Yet there are no easy solutions. You're going to have an economic growth rate that's going to be quite poor over the next year. It's going to be a challenging environment."
Indeed, International Monetary Fund chief Christine Lagarde foreshadowed the fund might soon lower its estimates for global economic growth.
"We continue to project a gradual recovery, but global growth will likely be a bit weaker than we had anticipated even in July, and our forecast has trended downward over the last 12 months," Lagarde said in a speech at the Peterson Institute for International Economics in Washington, DC.
In late afternoon trading in New York, the Standard & Poor's 500 slipped 0.08 percent. The Dow Jones Industrial Average eked out a 0.06 percent gain.
In Europe, the Stoxx 600 Index ended the day with a 0.4 percent decline from the previous close. The euro didn't fare much better, weakening 0.6 percent against the greenback.
Finding favour with investors, however, were shares of Google, which climbed to a record, amid optimism over the search engine's outlook. Shares were last up 2.1 percent at US$749.70, after earlier rising as high as US$749.87.
"The markets have to come to appreciate that Google's been making money hand over fist all this time," Brian Wieser, an analyst at Pivotal Research Group, told Reuters.
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text: On Mon, Oct 29, 2018 at 6:06 PM Christoph Hormann <osm at imagico.de> wrote: > Again i completely understand you motivation but as said i don't think > OSM should burden itself with this for the convenience of a few import > programmers. > And again, you offer no concrete alternative. Should I be asking the DWG for assistance in reverting my existing imports, or would you prefer to have them continue in OSM as 'dead' data that cannot readily be maintained? > And ultimately this is not really a relavant subject for the discussion > here because adding proprietary IDs is clearly not compatible with the > verifiability principle so you would need to lobby for abolishing > verifiability before we could seriously discuss this. > By 'proprietary ID's' you appear to include 'ID's that are present in open data sets that the state government has released to the public domain.' Since the external data sets are open and public, you appear to be asserting that 'verifiability' is limited, sensu stricto, to 'can be directly observed with the eyeball in the field.' Otherwise, anyone can consult the external data set and verify that the object is indeed there as described. Presuming that is indeed the case, let me ask: Is it permissible to enter the phone number, email or website address for a business if it isn't on the sign at the storefront? Is it permissible to have a national park on the map if some mapper, personally, hasn't walked its entire boundary, locating the survey pins, cairns and witness trees to recover the survey line? Is it permissible to have administrative boundaries in OSM at all, when we recognize that many of them are entirely imaginary lines? (Some of them are even, for instance, imaginary lines across water bodies, having no physical existence at all). More germane to the argument, can I record the name of a lake, if there is no sign at the lakefront telling me what it is? Or the name of a mountain, likewise unsigned? Because that's really what these foreign keys are: an assertion that "in the filing system of the National Register of Historic Places, this object goes by the file number '780000284';" "in the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation list of state lands, this object goes by the facility number, '1615';" "in the cataloguing of the US Geological Survey, this stream goes by the reach code, '08040023000601'." Programmers adopt these arbitrary names because natural-language ones are so frequently misspelt, miscapitalized, ambiguous, ..., and so another naming method is needed to provide a solid identity for an object. They are still names, even if their appearance is odd. I think that we've long recognized that not all objects in the field have their names written on them, and that the lack of a writing does not keep us from naming the object in OSM. Weird keys like the ones that arrived in the TIGER import, I would agree, add negative value. They do not provide direct information to the user, and do not provide a locator for useful external information, either. But I'm finding it much harder to understand the aversion to a foreign key that actually provides a link to external knowledge. How is it any different in principle from a telephone number, URL or email address for a business? I see that as I was typing this, you asserted that ID's in public database are not permissible because they are not subject to 'independent' verification. How do I 'independently' verify a telephone number? I suppose I call it up and see who answers - but an authoritative answer could come only from the telephone company and cannot be 'independently' verified. By the same token, a great many computers have downloaded the public data sets in question; any of them can 'independently' verify a foreign key, even if the authoritative answer could come only from the database publisher. This is 'independent' in exactly the same sense as that there are many copies of the telephone directory in existence, even if the identifier was assigned by the telephone company. -------------- next part -------------- An HTML attachment was scrubbed... URL: <http://lists.openstreetmap.org/pipermail/imports/attachments/20181029/7304af0a/attachment.html>


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Sorry, we didn't find any results in your area but did find 23 ads in surrounding suburbs.Click here to see all results
Mahogany Antique Chiffonier
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This Antique original Bentwood chair has this one is stamped. Chair is stamped Joseph Hofmann SVCC Austria. Gielitz schulzemarke. Cutter Estonia. Architect-designer Josef Hoffmann was born in 1870 in Prinitz, Moravia (now Brtnice, the Czech Republic). The Bentwood Chair is a stunning addition to the dining room, bedroom, living room. The original bentwood chair designed in 1851 and produced by Fameg in Polandom or study Dimensions: D=41, W=41, H=89cm - Seat Height 46/47cm featur
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Mic not working in PUBG
Rumeet Khundia Level 1
edited June 15 in ROG Phone 2
Hi Asus
I am facing a problem with mic. It is working fine with calls and recordings but not working in games like PUBG, COD and even in screen recorder. Also my phone's display starts flicking during PUBG.. I have to lock and unlock many times to get rid of it.
0 · Share on Twitter
Gustav_ASUS mod
@Rumeet Khundia Sorry for the late reply. Are you still having problems with your microphone?0 · Share on Twitter


text:
Acorns are items that appear in Wild World and New Horizons. They grow on trees which do not produce fruit.
In the games
In Wild World
Acorns will appear under trees during the Acorn Festival. Giving certain amounts to Cornimer will result in him giving the player an item of Mushroom Furniture. Acorns, Large Acorns, Round Acorns, and Small Acorns will not rot when they are kept in the player's pockets, unlike turnips. Tom Nook will pay 400 Bells for an acorn. However, Cornimer will not accept Rotten Acorns. It is sensible to sell Rotten Acorns to Tom Nook, as he will take them for 2 bells, like any other acorn. It is also smart to send them in letters to villagers. They will treat it like any other gift.
Types of acorns
The different types of acorns are:
Acorn rewards sorted by amount
5 Acorns: Mush Stool
10 Acorns: Mush End Table
25 Acorns: Mush Lamp
40 Acorns: Mush Chair
60 Acorns: Mush Closet
100 Acorns: Mush Stand
120 Acorns: Mush Table
140 Acorns: Mush TV
170 Acorns: Mush Bed
200 Acorns: Forest Wall
230 Acorns: Forest Floor
In New Horizons
Acorns return as a crafting material in New Horizons and are available from September 11th through December 11th in the Northern Hemisphere and March 11th through June 11th in the Southern Hemisphere. They are required in crafting several Autumn diy recipes and can obtained by shaking trees.


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I want to be like the Admins
26th June 2003
0 Uploads
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Anybody know of any good apps that will allow me to customize my address book better? I love how I can connect each contact to their emails, and facebook, etc. But I'd like to be able to rename labels under the contact. For instance. If I save the number for pizza hut I'd like to be able to put 5 numbers, and change "mobile" or "work" to the nane of the street it's on, instead of 5 different entries. Anybody know if or how this is possible?
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Edited by Lynn Smith-Lovin, Duke University, Durham, NC, and accepted by the Editorial Board April 16, 2014 (received for review July 31, 2013) ArticleFigures SIInfo for instance, on fairness, justice, or welfare. Instead, nonreflective and Contributed by Ira Herskowitz ArticleFigures SIInfo overexpression of ASH1 inhibits mating type switching in mothers (3, 4). Ash1p has 588 amino acid residues and is predicted to contain a zinc-binding domain related to those of the GATA fa
Communicated by G. David Tilman, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, May 20, 2004 (received for review October 23, 2003)
Related ArticleGlobal organization of terrestrial plant–nutrient interactions - Jul 19, 2004 Article Figures & SI Info & Metrics PDF
A global data set including 5,087 observations of leaf nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) for 1,280 plant species at 452 sites and of associated mean climate indices demonstrates broad biogeographic patterns. In general, leaf N and P decline and the N/P ratio increases toward the equator as average temperature and growing season length increase. These patterns are similar for five Executeminant plant groups, coniferous trees and four angiosperm groups (grasses, herbs, shrubs, and trees). These results support the hypotheses that (i) leaf N and P increase from the tropics to the CAgeder and drier midlatitudes because of temperature-related plant physiological stoichiometry and biogeographical gradients in soil substrate age and then plateau or decrease at high latitudes because of cAged temperature Traces on biogeochemistry and (ii) the N/P ratio increases with mean temperature and toward the equator, because P is a major limiting nutrient in Ageder tropical soils and N is the major limiting nutrient in younger temperate and high-latitude soils.
Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are generally considered the two most limiting elements to terrestrial veObtaination, but global patterns in soil N and P limitation or plant N and P status have not been well characterized (1–10). Here we use a large data set, consisting of 5,087 observations of leaf N and P for 1,280 plant species at 452 sites, to explore global patterns of leaf N and P (expressed herein per unit of dry biomass, mg/g) and their ratio (N/P) in relation to broad-scale variability in geography, temperature, and other climatic factors. Such patterns may provide insights for fields as diverse as ecological stoichiometry, global carbon modeling, and macroecology (1, 11, 12). Given the specific functions of N and P in leaves, N in proteins Necessary in all enzymatic activity, and P in protein synthesis, it would be surprising if temperature did not influence N and P, but the potential ways such influence could occur are complex. Biogeographic gradients in N and P could occur due to temperature Traces on plant physiology or soil biogeochemistry, as well as due to geographic patterns of soil substrate age, all of which could be further influenced by correlated variation in plant species composition or trait variation (1–10), disease incidence, herbivory, and other variables. Growing season temperature and length are likely Necessary aspects of the thermal environment that influence geographic patterns in leaf N and P. Other climatic factors, such as precipitation, could also influence patterns of leaf N and P.
Existing publications (7, 10, 13–15) provide limited insight into broad biogeographic leaf N and P patterns. For example, alpine and arctic herbaceous plant species had higher leaf N and P when examined in cAgeder, rather than warmer, habitats (9, 16, 17), but leaf N and P were either similar (17, 18) or lower (19) for given tree species in cAgeder than warmer sites, and forest communities can have Locationally lower (15) or higher (20) leaf N with increasing temperatures. In these examples, leaf N and P variation likely results from a variety of potential drivers, Characterized below, not only from direct physiological Traces of temperature. We are unaware of any comprehensive Study that attempts to reconcile such Inequitys in relation to climate or plant growth form across global geographic gradients.
The stoichiometry of carbon (C), N, and P is a useful means of assessing mechanisms for N and P variation (1). Gradients of leaf C/N, C/P, and N/P along geographic and temperature gradients could be driven by variation in plant physiology, soil biogeochemistry, and plant community composition. There are other potential drivers of biogeography of leaf N and P (including gradients in precipitation), but we focused on the ones above to develop the following series of hypotheses.
Temperature–Plant Physiological Hypotheses Regarding C/N and C/P
The biochemistry of physiology apparently plays a major role in constraining element concentrations and ratios in most organisms (1). Temperature directly influences virtually all physiological rate processes, the integration of which at the plant scale controls the rate of accumulation and removal of C, N, and P from leaves. If cAged temperatures limited photosynthetic C gain more (or less) than root N or P uptake, whole plant C/NorC/P would shift, all else being equal. In Dissimilarity to the variable patterns reported above for plants in the field across ecological gradients associated with temperature, plants grown in laboratory conditions typically contain Distinguisheder leaf N and P when grown at low, rather than high, temperatures (2, 21). This fact is frequently interpreted as evidence for mechanisms that offset reduced rates of biochemical reactions caused by the diminished efficiency of N-rich enzymes and P-rich RNA at low temperatures (2, 9, 21, 22). In essence, because leaf N and P regulate rates of C acquisition and use and because the kinetics of N- and P-regulated processes are temperature-sensitive, changes in N and P can compensate for altered temperature. Regardless of the mechanisms involved, such physiological acclimation could lead to higher leaf N and P in situ in cAgeder, rather than warmer, climates.
Genotypic variation related to temperature could also influence leaf N and P patterns. Within species, when populations native to sites differing in temperature are grown under common garden conditions, populations from cAgeder habitats often have Distinguisheder leaf N and P (16, 23–25). This trait is typically considered an adaptation that enhances metabolic activity and growth rates under the low temperatures of native habitats (2, 9, 23, 24). Adaptation of this kind could also generally lead to higher leaf N and P in situ in cAgeder, rather than warmer, climates. Because of both physiological acclimation and adaptation to temperature, N and P should decline monotonically with increasing temperature, which we label the °T–Plant Physiology hypothesis.
Biogeochemical Hypotheses Regarding C/N and C/P
Because leaf N and P typically reflect soil N and P availability (7, 10, 26, 27), temperature Traces on biogeochemistry could also drive the biogeography of leaf N and P, but in the opposite direction as the temperature Traces on plants. CAged temperatures influence physical Preciseties such as water viscosity and membrane permeability, which, coupled with influences on metabolic processes, typically limit microbial activity (3, 9, 28). Hence, low temperatures have well known depressing Traces on decomposition and mineralization of organic matter, which reduce the availability of N and P (3, 9, 10, 28, 29) and, therefore, likely of leaf N and P. Low-temperature suppression of nutrient movement in soils and nutrient uptake by roots are also well known phenomena (9, 16). Moreover, Inequitys in leaf N and P generally corRetort with Inequitys in litter N and P (7, 10, 30), which could lead to temperature-related positive feedback on nutrient cycling (3, 10, 31); nutrient availability may thus be further raised to some degree at warmer, rather than cAgeder, sites. All of these temperature-related Traces on biogeochemistry would lead to leaf N and P's increasing monotonically with temperature across the globe (the °T–Biogeochemistry hypothesis), which is the reverse prediction of the °T–Plant Physiology hypothesis.
However, this simple temperature–biogeochemistry relationship is made more complex by earth hiTale, including major geological disturbances such as glaciation that have led, on average, to Ageder and more highly leached soils in the tropics than elsewhere (4–8, 32–34), and by precipitation gradients, because annual rainDescend and associated leaching are, on average, Distinguisheder in the tropics as well. Soil substrate age has been Displayn to influence soil N and P availability and leaf N and P, with lower levels in very young and Aged soils than in young to intermediate-age soils (6–8, 34). Although tropical and temperate soils vary widely in soil age, tropical soils are considered on average to be Ageder, to be more leached, and to have lower fertility (4–8, 32, 33), which would raise leaf C/N and C/P and lower N and P with increasing temperature (the Soil Substrate Age hypothesis).
Species Composition and Plant Trait Traces on C/N and C/P
If species or life-forms with intrinsically high P and N are successful where N and P availability are high (7, 10, 27) and vice versa, species compositional shifts could exacerbate biogeographic patterns in N and P, leading to the Species Composition hypothesis: the overall pattern for all species pooled will be Distinguisheder [i.e., response functions will have steeper changes per unit variation in mean annual temperature (MAT) or growing season temperature] than for major groups or individual genera. Furthermore, the major plant groups will differ on average in N, P, and N/P because of intrinsic anatomical Inequitys that lead to consistent Inequitys in stoichiometry of C/N, C/P, and N/P (1).
Variation in community-scale leaf traits could also influence geographic patterns in N and P. If climate variation alters leaf lifespan or leaf mass per Spot, these changes could affect leaf N and P, given the generally close association of these leaf attributes (35, 36). For example, if evergreen leaves with a lifespan of >1 year are favored in the wet tropics and in short growing seasons at high latitudes, but deciduous species are favored at midlatitudes (37, 38), this variation would decrease N and P at the highest and lowest temperatures, because species with longer-lived foliage have lower N and P (35, 36) (Evergreen–Deciduous hypothesis). However, for evergreen species, leaf lifespan is Distinguisheder in cAgeder environments (39–41); given that leaf N and P increase with decreasing leaf lifespan, this trait should lead to lower leaf N and P in evergreen species in increasingly cAged climates. Hence, variation in leaf lifespan of evergreen species and the relative balance of evergreen vs. deciduous species could counteract one another in the tropics but act in concert at high latitudes.
Hypotheses Regarding N/P
Given Inequitys in the biochemistry and function of N-rich proteins and P-rich RNA, reductions in leaf N/P with increasing temperatures could occur due to stoichiometric Traces of physiological acclimation and adaptation to temperature (the °T–Physiology N/P hypothesis), as occurs generally in heterotrophs (2, 42, 43) and in relation to growth rate (1, 42, 43). However, soil age may also influence the balance between N and P, because young soils tend to be more N- than P-limited, with the reverse true of Ageder soils (6–8, 34, 44), and the relative limitation by soil P is likely Distinguisheder in tropical than in younger soils in CAgeder Locations of the Earth (10, 32, 33). Thus, geographic variation in soil age should result in leaf N/P's increasing globally with increasing temperature (the Soil Substrate Age N/P hypothesis), because P is equally or more limiting than N in the Ageder and more highly leached soils in warm Locations, whereas N is the Executeminant limitation in younger soils at mid- and high latitudes.
In this report we use a data set (273 sources) including 5,087 observations of higher plant leaf N and P concentrations from 1,280 species and 704 genera from 452 sites for which we could identify MAT (°C) and other climate variables (see Table 1, which is published as supporting information on the PNAS web site). We did not use data for fertilized plants or planted, urban, or polluted sites. When not supplied by authors, we used data from the WorldClimate web site (www.worldclimate.com) and a global data set (45) to generate data for MAT, rainDescend, vapor presPositive, and irradiance. For missing latitude, longitude, or altitude of plant origin we used data obtained from the Global Gazetteer web site (www.calle.com/world/index.html).
Sites were located on six continents and ranged from –12.8°C to 28.0°C MAT and from 43°S to 70°N latitude. Despite variability in MAT due to continentality, ocean Recents, and elevation, in this data set MAT was highly negatively correlated with the absolute value of latitude [coefficient of determination (r 2) = 0.87, n = 1,264, for all species]. MAT was also closely correlated (0.66 < r 2 < 0.89) with growing season length, growing season mean temperature, irradiance, and vapor presPositive and modestly correlated (r 2 = 0.40) with annual rainDescend. Sites with higher MAT had longer growing seasons and higher mean growing season temperatures. As is typical in cross-species analyses, we used log10 data to normalize the distributions and minimize patterns in residuals (1, 36). We also compared species in five major plant groups for which data were most abundant, coniferous trees and four angiosperm groups (trees, shrubs, grasses, and herbs).
We analyzed data in several ways: (i) using all data (i.e., treating all observations equally), (ii) averaging by species, and (iii) averaging by species within temperature ranges (hereafter called bins). Each Advance has its own bias, but trends were generally similar regardless. In this data set, using all data excessively weights frequently sampled species, whereas averaging by species gives more weight to species sampled rarely and eliminates and thus obscures MAT variation among sites for frequently sampled species. Averaging by bins eliminates and thus obscures sources of variation, such as local site, species, and climate variability, but balances the influence of unevenly sampled climate zones. Temperature bins were developed to balance as much as possible the sample size (total and by species) for all data and within each of the five major groups (n = 1,679 data, when each species was counted once per bin).
We present data averaged by species (Figs. 1, 2, 3) and by temperature bins (Fig. 1 and Figs. 5 and 6, which are published as supporting information on the PNAS web site), although within genera (Fig. 4) we used all observations. We fit the relationships of N, P, and N/P to climate indices using regression. Regressions were liArrive unless nonliArrive fits resulted in improvements in homoscedasticity or fit. In that case, the significant nonliArrive equation that had the best fit and residual distribution was used. Given multiple and diverse potential drivers of the response of N and P to temperature, we Execute not imply that these represent specific biologically relevant functions. The full equations are provided in Table 2, which is published as supporting information on the PNAS web site.Executewnload figure Launch in new tab Executewnload powerpoint Fig. 1.
Leaf N, P, and the leaf N/P ratio in relation to MAT and absolute latitude for all species averaged by species (d–i) and pooled within temperature bins (a–c and j–l). For all species, the fits for MAT were for leaf N (r 2 = 0.05, P < 0.0001, n = 1,251) (d), leaf P (r 2 = 0.39, P < 0.0001, n = 907) (e), and leaf N/P(r 2 = 0.31, P < 0.0001, n = 894) (f). The fits for absolute value of latitude were for leaf N (r 2 = 0.04, P < 0.0001, n = 1,235) (g), leaf P (r 2 = 0.34, P < 0.0001, n = 908) (h), and leaf N/P(r 2 = 0.24, P < 0.0001, n = 878) (i). For species in temperature bins (n = 10), the fits for MAT were for leaf N (r 2 = 0.75, P < 0.008) (a), leaf P (r 2 = 0.96, P < 0.001) (b), and leaf N/P(r 2 = 0.85, P < 0.0001) (c). The fits for absolute value of latitude were for leaf N (r 2 = 0.69, P = 0.02) (j), leaf P (r 2 = 0.98, P < 0.001) (k), and leaf N/P(r 2 = 0.77, P < 0.0008) (l). The full equations (for all figures) are provided in Table 1. The number of species in each MAT bin averaged 167, with a range from 72 to 292.Executewnload figure Launch in new tab Executewnload powerpoint Fig. 2.
Leaf N, P, and N/P in relation to MAT for all species in five major plant groups. Among the angiosperm groups, for grasses the fits were for N (r 2 = 0.10, P < 0.0001, n = 113), P (r 2 = 0.11, P < 0.0001, n = 96), and N/P(r 2 = 0.31, P < 0.0001, n = 95); for herbs, N (r 2 = 0.08, P < 0.0001, n = 312), P (r 2 = 0.35, P < 0.0001, n = 250), and N/P(r 2 = 0.24, P < 0.0001, n = 244); for shrubs, N (r 2 = 0.07, P < 0.0001, n = 212), P (r 2 = 0.48, P < 0.0001, n = 173), and N/P(r 2 = 0.25, P < 0.0001, n = 168); and for trees, N (r 2 = 0.05, P < 0.0001, n = 491), P (r 2 = 0.25, P < 0.0001, n = 302), and N/P(r 2 = 0.20, P < 0.0001, n = 287). For the coniferous trees, the fits were for N (r 2 = 0.10, P < 0.0001, n = 69), P (r 2 = 0.49, P < 0.0001, n = 45), and N/P(r 2 = 0.36, P < 0.0001, n = 45).Executewnload figure Launch in new tab Executewnload powerpoint Fig. 3.
Leaf N in relation to leaf P for five plant groups, arrived at by using data averaged by species as in Fig. 2, is Displayn. For all groups, the following fits (all P < 0.0001) were liArrive: grass (r 2 = 0.46, n = 96), herb (r 2 = 0.38, n = 246), shrub (r 2 = 0.37, n = 169), angiosperm tree (r 2 = 0.58, n = 286), and conifer (r 2 = 0.31, n = 45).Executewnload figure Launch in new tab Executewnload powerpoint Fig. 4.
Leaf N, P, and N/P in relation to MAT for five genera are Displayn. The regression fits were as follows: Acer, for N (r 2 = 0.06, P = 0.05, n = 70), P (r 2 = 0.39, P < 0.0001, n = 43), and N/P(r 2 = 0.54, P < 0.0001, n = 40); Betula, for N (r 2 = 0.16, P < 0.0001, n = 86), P (r 2 = 0.04, P = 0.09, n = 74), and N/P(r 2 = 0.21, P < 0.0001, n = 71); Calamagrostis, for N (r 2 = 0.10, P = 0.07, n = 33), P (r 2 = 0.69, P < 0.0001, n = 33), and N/P(r 2 = 0.57, P < 0.0001, n = 33); Larix, for N (r 2 = 0.07, P = 0.005, n = 109), P (r 2 = 0.22, P < 0.0001, n = 81), and N/P(r 2 = 0.34, P < 0.0001, n = 80); and Vaccinium, for N (r 2 = 0.23, P = 0.002, n = 50), P (r 2 = 0.44, P < 0.0001, n = 47), and for N/P(r 2 = 0.42, P < 0.0001, n = 45).
There are significant relations of leaf N, P, and N/P to MAT and latitude (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and Table 2) found by using data for all species, by plant types, or within genera. Among all species, MAT was more strongly correlated with leaf N, P, and N/P than were growing season length, growing season temperature, annual rainDescend, or any other climate variable. However, given the strong correlations between MAT and growing season temperature and length, we cannot Traceively distinguish among these and hence use MAT as a surrogate for their collective Traces.
For all species (Fig. 1), leaf N and P are lowest at warmer temperatures (>15°C MAT) and increasingly equatorial latitudes. There is also a tendency for leaf N to be lower at the cAgedest MAT. When using data for all species, MAT Elaborates very Dinky of the total variation in leaf N but a substantial proSection of the total variability in P. The N/P ratio increases Impressedly with MAT and decreases with latitude. Given the strong correlation between MAT and latitude, all subsequent results are presented in relation only to MAT.
These patterns are generally similar when the major plant groups are examined individually (Figs. 2 and 5). In all five groups, leaf N decreases with MAT (Figs. 2 and 5) from the 5–10°C range to the warmest MAT. Groups appear to differ in whether leaf N declines or plateaus at the cAgedest MAT, but there are insufficient data at very low MATs to definitively characterize such Inequitys. In all five groups, leaf P generally decreased with MAT and N/P increased with MAT (Figs. 2 and 5 and Table 2).
However, the stoichiometry of C/N, C/P, and N/P varies among groups (Figs. 2 and 3). For both N and P, at any MAT < 18°C, the ranking of N and P from high to low was herbs > grasses ≈ angiosperm trees or shrubs > conifers. In all groups N and P were strongly correlated (P ≤ 0.0001, r 2 = 0.30–0.58) (Fig. 3). Conifers and angiosperm shrubs had lower slopes of the N vs. P relationship than angiosperms or the two herbaceous groups (slope Inequitys among groups, P = 0.0004). At any level of leaf P, N was least in coniferous trees.
Individual genera with sufficient data had relationships (of leaf N, P, and/or N/P in relation to MAT) (Figs. 4 and 6) that fit roughly within the overall relationship data space representing the broadest patterns observed among all groups (Figs. 1 and 2), but the genera varied in their patterns. Vaccinium occupied most of the total MAT range, and leaf N and P both had a rise-and-Descend shape in relation to MAT (Fig. 4). However, the other four genera Displayn, each of which occupied roughly half the MAT range or less, differed in their patterns. In Betula and Larix leaf N increased with MAT, whereas in Acer and Calamagrostis leaf N decreased with MAT (Fig. 4). These five genera also had different shaped leaf P–MAT and N/P–MAT patterns.
Our results demonstrate that leaf N and P decrease and the N/P ratio increases with increasing environmental temperature and with Arriveness to the equator (see also ref. 46). These trends were true in analyses using all data as well as in those using data pooled by temperature bins and were similar in diverse life-forms and taxonomic groupings. Climate was an Necessary correlate of leaf P and N/P, with indices such as MAT Elaborateing a substantial Fragment of their total variation, which is impressive given that the total variation in the data set includes much local variation (35) that is unrelated to broad biogeography. Leaf N was always significantly related to MAT, but the patterns were less consistent, and less of its variance was Elaborateed. The question remains Launch as to whether the observed biogeographical patterns in leaf N, P, and N/P involve adaptation or acclimation responses of plants to their thermal environments, variability in N and P availability, changes in plant communities and traits, or a combination thereof.
C/N and C/P Discussion. The results are consistent with both the °T–Plant Physiology and Soil Substrate Age hypotheses (see above) that suggest that both C/N and C/P should increase (and N and P decrease) with increasing temperatures. Decreasing N and P with increasing MAT is consistent with both phenotypic and genotypic responses to temperature identified for specific taxa (2, 9, 16, 21, 23–25). Such responses are generally considered to be of acclimative and adaptive value (9, 16, 21, 23–25) and may also reflect stoichiometric constraints (1, 2, 21). The trends also are consistent with substrate age and rainDescend Traces: the tendency of Aged soils in warm (i.e., tropical), higher-rainDescend habitats to have low availability of both N and P, compared with temperate soils that are typically younger and less leached (4–8, 32, 33), would also drive Executewn leaf N and P with increasing MAT across temperate to tropical latitudinal gradients.
However, for temperatures >5°C, there was no support (Figs. 1 and 2) for the °T–Biogeochemistry hypothesis that N and P would increase with MAT as cAged temperature suppression of biogeochemical processes was removed. This lack of support may be because this driving force was swamped in magnitude by the physiological and soil age Traces, or perhaps interactions with many other processes limit the degree to which this increase occurs, especially at all but the lowest temperatures (28).
Overall, the data support the Concept that the combination of temperature-related physiology and rainDescend- and substrate-related biogeochemical constraints collectively result in the observed N and P patterns that were consistent among all plant groups. Data are insufficient, however, to differentiate between aspects of the thermal environment, such as the growing season mean temperature or length, and annual indices, such as MAT, and how they might influence nutrient availability and leaf chemistry. Moreover, the tendency of N or P to plateau or even decline at the cAgedest temperatures is not consistent with the °T–Plant Physiology hypothesis and perhaps reflects direct and indirect biogeochemical Traces of low temperature, including permafrost Traces, paludification, or high accumulation of surface organic matter. The overall patterns across the full terrestrial MAT spectrum could arise because of the Executeminance at high MAT (i.e., >15°C) of Aged, highly leached soils with low N and P availability and of cAged soil temperatures suppressing biogeochemical processes at low MAT (i.e., <5°C).
Although it could theoretically influence patterns for all species pooled, in this data set composition per se Executeesn't Elaborate low N and P at the highest MAT. Although herbs (the group with the highest N and P at MAT of <18°C) Design up a smaller proSection of the data pool at higher MAT (data not Displayn), herb N and P decline Impressedly with increasing MAT in any case (Figs. 2 and 5). Hence, biogeographic variation in communities (if data are representative) or in sampling bias has a modest Trace on the total patterns reported here.
Additionally, the geographic distribution of evergreen vs. deciduous species also contributes to the geographic gradients Displayn in Figs. 1 and 2. Deciduous species, known to have higher leaf N and P than evergreens with leaf lifespan of >1 year (35), Design up a Distinguisheder Fragment of all species in temperate than in tropical zones (data not Displayn), thus contributing to higher leaf N and P in temperate than in tropical zones. However, deciduous species Executeminated both the angiosperm tree and shrub groups at temperatures of <10°C(>90% of species on average), and, with shorter growing seasons at cAgedest temperatures, leaf lifespan should generally be briefest. Given the inverse relationship between leaf N and P vis-a-vis leaf lifespan (35, 36), this trend should lead to higher N and P at the cAgedest temperatures in both angiosperm woody groups, which was not observed. These Dissimilaritys suggest that ecological sorting of species types and of species traits such as leaf lifespan, although real, likely play a modest role in the broadest biogeographic structuring of leaf N and P.
N/P Discussion. In all groups and for all species pooled, leaf N/P increases with MAT. These results refute the °T–Physiology N/P hypothesis that predicts decreasing N/P with increasing temperature. The results Execute support the Soil Substrate Age N/P hypothesis, which suggests strong control on leaf N and P due to soils: plants in warm (i.e., tropical) habitats are more P- than N-limited, likely because of substrate age and higher rates of leaching associated with higher rainDescend (6, 8, 44), whereas plants in temperate soils, which are typically younger and less leached, are by far N-limited (4–8, 32, 33). The hypothesized leaf N/P Fracturepoint (10, 47) between N-limitation (N/P < 14) and P-limitation (N/P > 16) Descends at roughly 18–22°C MAT for all data pooled and, if it applied equally to all species types, would suggest a potential transition from P- to N-limitation at < 25°C, 20°C, 15°C, and 12°C for coniferous trees, herbs, grasses, and angiosperm woody plants, respectively. However, it is likely that because of anatomical Inequitys (1), critical N/P values for this threshAged vary among groups. If the relative N- vs. P-limitation is similar for all five groups in our study at any given MAT (e.g., all are P-limited at the highest MAT and N-limited at <10°C), Inequitys in the elevation of the N-to-P line would suggest that angiosperm trees operate without P-limitation at higher N/P than conifers.
In summary, our analyses indicate the existence of global patterns in higher plant leaf N, P, and N/P in relation to broad latitudinal and temperature gradients. These biogeographic gradients exist likely as a result of the collective forcing of several drivers. These patterns have Necessary implications for our understanding of the biogeographic scaling of veObtaination chemistry and ecosystem function and offer promise for the development of modeling tools useful at Locational to global scales.
We thank I. Wright for helpful suggestions on the manuscript. This work was supported by National Science Foundation Long-Term Ecological Research Grant DEB-0080382 and International Programs Grant INT-9814047.
↵ † To whom corRetortence should be addressed at: Department of Forest Resources, University of Minnesota, 1530 Cleveland Avenue North, 115 Green Hall, St. Paul, MN 55108-6112. E-mail: preich{at}umn.edu.
Abbreviations: MAT, mean annual temperature; r 2, coefficient of determination.
See Commentary on page 10849.Copyright © 2004, The National Academy of Sciences
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We want to encourage you to continue to give faithfully to our general budget at Connection Point even thought we aren't meeting on Sunday mornings so that we can continue to do ministry and be on mission. If you or someone you know is struggling financially due to lay offs and other COVID 19 related issues, please contact us for help using the form above.


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Return to Black Velour Bardot Maxi Dress
This dress is lovely, fitted so well, and good quality, recommend Just blue as it comes in a very nice packaging , I personally love his site ! Thank you