text: General ArticlesNonimmobilizers and Transitional Compounds May Produce Convulsions by Two MechanismsEger, Edmond I, II, MD; Koblin, Donald D., PhD, MD; Sonner, James, MD; Gong, Diane, BS; Laster, Michael J., DVM; Ionescu, Pompiliu, MD; Halsey, Michael J., DPhil; Hudlicky, Tomas, PhDAuthor Information (Eger, Koblin, Sonner, Gong, Laster, Ionescu) Department of Anesthesia, University of California, San Francisco; (Koblin) Veteran's Administration Hospital, San Francisco, California; (Halsey) Nuffield Department of Anaesthetics, Oxford, United Kingdom; and (Hudlicky) Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. EIE is a paid consultant to Baxter, PPD. Supported by NIH Grant 1P01GM47818-04. Accepted for publication December 28, 1998. Address correspondence to Dr. Eger, Department of Anesthesia, S-455, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-0464. Address e-mail to email@example.com. Anesthesia & Analgesia: April 1999 - Volume 88 - Issue 4 - p 884-892 doi: 10.1213/00000539-199904000-00037 Free Metrics Abstract Some inhaled compounds cause convulsions.To better appreciate the physical basis for this property, we correlated the partial pressures that produced convulsions in rats with the lipophilicity (nonpolarity) and hydrophilicity (polarity) of 45 compounds: 3 n-alkanes, 18 n-haloalkanes, 3 halogenated aromatic compounds, 3 cycloalkanes and 3 halocycloalkanes, 13 halogenated ethers, and 2 noble gases (He and Ne). In most cases, convulsions were quantified by averaging the alveolar partial pressures just below the pressures that caused and slightly higher pressures that did cause clonic convulsions (ED50). The ED50 did not correlate with hydrophilicity (the saline/gas partition coefficient), nor was there an obvious correlation with molecular structure. For 80% of compounds (36 of 45), the ED50 correlated closely (r2 = 0.99) with lipophilicity (the olive oil/gas partition coefficient). Perhaps because they block the effect of GABA on GABAA receptors, five compounds were more potent than would be predicted from their lipophilicity. Conversely, four compounds may have been less potent than would be predicted because they (like conventional inhaled anesthetics) enhance the effect of GABA on GABAA receptors. Implications: Nonimmobilizers and transitional compounds may produce convulsions by two mechanisms. One correlates with lipophilicity (nonpolarity), and the other correlates with an action on GABAA receptors. (Anesth Analg 1999;88:884-92) We previously described inhaled compounds with properties that deviate markedly from those predicted by the Meyer-Overton hypothesis. Specifically, their anesthetic potencies do not correlate with their solubilities in olive oil [1-3]. These "deviant" compounds include nonimmobilizers (previously called nonanesthetics) and transitional compounds. Nonimmobilizers do not produce anesthesia when given alone, nor do they lower the anesthetic requirement (minimum alveolar anesthetic concentration [MAC]) for conventional inhaled anesthetics. Transitional compounds also do not produce anesthesia when given alone. However, they add to the effect of anesthetics given concurrently, and these data can be used to estimate the partial pressure of the transitional compound that would produce anesthesia. These concentrations are >3.5-fold greater than those predicted by the Meyer-Overton hypothesis [3]. That is, transitional compounds are far less potent as immobilizers than predicted from their lipophilicity. Nonimmobilizers and transitional compounds differ from other inhaled compounds in ways beyond their absent or lesser capacity to produce immobility. They have a lower polarity, as indicated by saline/gas partition coefficients generally less than those found with conventional inhaled anesthetics [3]. When administered alone, nonimmobilizers and transitional compounds produce twitching and convulsions, usually at concentrations that would be expected to produce anesthesia by the Meyer-Overton hypothesis [3]. That is, the product of the oil/gas partition coefficient of the anesthetic multiplied by the alveolar partial pressure of anesthetic required to produce convulsions usually seems to equal a value between 0.5 and 6 atm, a range of values that encompasses those found for conventional and most experimental anesthetics [4]. Confirmation that such a relationship existed would imply that a critical number of molecules of nonimmobilizer or transitional compounds must reside at a certain nonpolar site to produce convulsions. To confirm or refute these initial impressions, we examined the relationship among lipophilicity, hydrophilicity, and convulsant activity for various gaseous and volatile compounds, including nonhalogenated [5-7] and halogenated [1,2] alkanes, nonhalogenated cycloalkanes [8], halogenated ethers [9-11] [including cis-trans isomers [12]], halogenated aromatic compounds [8], and noble gases [13]. Methods Much of the data presented in the present report are drawn from published results for particular compound series (e.g., n-haloalkanes). Some data are from reports submitted for publication or that are in press. Several values are of unpublished data. In some cases, additional data have been gathered since publication; thus, the values may slightly differ from published values. Experiments were sometimes limited because of the availability or high costs of compounds. In some cases, only one or two rats were studied. In some cases, the convulsant 50% effective dose (ED (50)) was not obtained by bracketing the anesthetic concentrations immediately surrounding that which caused convulsions: only one concentration (that producing convulsions at an initial step or as part of a continuously ascending concentration) was given. We assumed that the alveolar concentration equaled the inspired concentration of poorly soluble compounds. For more soluble compounds, we converted inspired values to alveolar values by multiplying the former by the arterial to inspired partial pressure ratios (separately determined). After approval from the University of California, San Francisco committee on animal research, we studied the convulsant properties of various inhaled anesthetics in adult specific pathogen-free Sprague-Dawley male rats (300-500 g). Each animal was caged individually and had continuous access to standard rat chow and tap water before study. Most compounds were purchased from PCR Incorporated (Gainesville, FL) or Flura Corporation (Newport, TN) and had purities >97% and usually >99%. Ross C. Terrell synthesized and provided four convulsant ethers [CF3 CH2 OCF2 Cl, CF3 CFCIOCF2 Cl, CF3 CCI2 OCF2 Cl, CFCl2 CF2 OCF2 Cl], while one of us (TH) synthesized and provided one convulsant ether [CF2 ClCF2 OCF2 CI]. TH also provided enriched forms of the cis (91% cis to 9% trans) and trans (8% cis to 92% trans) isomers of 1,2-dichloroperfluorocyclobutane. The 3M Corporation (St. Paul, MN) donated the mixture of the structural isomers, CF3(CF2)3 OCH3 and (CF3)2 CFCF2 OCH3 (approximately equal quantities of each in the mixture). One compound (CF3 CHFCHFCF2 CF (2) CF3) was obtained from Van Waters and Rogers (Los Angeles, CA). Each rat was placed in an individual plastic cylinder with a holed rubber stopper through which passed the tail and a rectal temperature probe. Tape secured the tail to a plastic extension of the cylinder. Thus, the rat could move within the cylinder, but the secured tail prevented it from exiting through the "head" end of the cylinder. Each rat, enclosed in its individual plastic cylinder, was placed into a closed system that allowed for administration and sampling of the inhaled anesthetic, administration of oxygen (typically maintained at 0.5-1.0 atm), removal of carbon dioxide (typically <0.01 atm) with soda lime, circulation of gases through the closed system with a fan, and monitoring of rectal temperatures. One compound (CF3 CHFCHFCF2 CF2 CF3) broke down in the presence of soda lime, and we omitted the absorbent when testing this compound. For this compound, removal of carbon dioxide was accomplished through the use of a high inflow rate. One closed system was a 3.4-L clear plastic cylinder (permitting full visualization of each rat) with metal ends that contained O-rings and clamps to provide a seal [3]. This system held two rats and was used when a limited amount of the experimental compound was available and/or when it was required to administer hyperbaric pressures of up to 10 atm. A second closed system enabled testing at very high pressures (e.g., for measurement of the convulsive potential of helium or neon or perfluorinated n-alkanes.) This system used a stainless steel chamber with a viewing window at one end [2]. The chamber allowed application of pressures as high as 300 atm. A third closed system [5] allowed concurrent testing of four rats and was used when there was less concern about the availability and/or expense of the anesthetic and/or when hyperbaric pressures were not required. Because the excitation associated with administration of experimental compounds often increased body temperature, we applied bags of ice to the individual plastic cylinders containing the rats before placement in the closed system and to the outside of the closed chambers to maintain rectal temperatures <39[degree sign]C. The chambers were flushed with oxygen for 10 min (chamber concentration >98% O2) before closing the system and introducing test compounds. Ports into each system permitted the introduction of gaseous or liquid anesthetics and sampling of chamber gases. For most experiments, the test compound was initially added to the chamber to produce a partial pressure that was approximately 25%-50% of the predicted MAC value (which was calculated by dividing 2 atm by the oil/gas partition coefficient of the compound). The animals were observed for 20 min after the compound was introduced, and a gas sample from the chamber was taken for analysis, usually by gas chromatography. For a few gases [e.g., helium [13]], we determined the test compound concentration by measuring the concentration of oxygen by using a Pauling meter and subtracting that concentration from 100%. After the 20-min observation period, additional test compound was added (typically an amount that increased the previous partial pressure by 30%-50%), the rats were observed for an additional 20 min, and a gas sample was again taken from the chamber for analysis. This process was repeated until the rat exhibited a clonic convulsion, defined by strong contractions of muscles over most of the body, with the muscles alternately contracting and relaxing, the eyes tightly closed, and the mouth widely opened with teeth bared. We did not quantitate more subtle characteristics of excitatory phenomena (e.g., tremors or twitching). The convulsant effect of the experimental compound was estimated for each rat by averaging the inspired partial pressures at which the convulsion occurred and the immediately previous partial pressure measured after a 20-min equilibration period during which there was no convulsion. Mean +/- SD values for these convulsive ED50 values are given in Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, Table 4, and Table 5.Table 1: Convulsant n-AlkanesTable 2: Convulsant CycloalkanesTable 3: Convulsant EthersTable 4: Convulsant AromaticsTable 5: Convulsant Noble GasesThe testing of convulsant ED50 values of certain cycloalkanes and aromatic compounds required the intraperitoneal administration of these compounds [8]. Dose-response relationships were established by noting the effect of a given intraperitoneal injection. Arterial blood was taken for analysis of the test compound using gas chromatography. The values obtained were converted to partial pressures based on known blood/gas partition coefficients and concentrations of test compound in the gas phase equilibrated with the extracted blood. Saline/gas and olive oil/gas partition coefficients for the compounds were taken from published articles or were determined using standard techniques [4]. Correlation coefficients were determined for the relationships between the ED50 for convulsions and the oil/gas and saline/gas partition coefficients. Values are reported as means +/- SD. Results Data for convulsant ED50 values and for solubilities were available for 3 n-alkanes and 18 n-haloalkanes (Table 1), 3 cycloalkanes and 3 halocycloalkanes, including the cis and trans forms of c(CClFCClFCF2 CF2) (Table 2), 13 halogenated ethers (Table 3), 3 halogenated aromatic compounds (Table 4), and 2 noble gases, He and Ne (Table 5). The most potent compounds (CClF2[CClF] (2) CClF2, CClF2 CClFCCIFCClF2, CF3 CHFCHFCF2 CF2 CF3, flurothyl [CF3 CH2 OCH2 CF3], cyclooctane, and perfluorotoluene) each caused convulsions at <0.005 atm, whereas the least potent compounds (He and Ne) required approximately 90 atm, a >20,000-fold range of partial pressures. CF (3) CHFCHFCF2 CF2 CF3 was a nonimmobilizer that, at 3 times the convulsant ED50, did not decrease or increase the partial pressure of desflurane required to produce MAC. Each test compound had a measurable solubility in saline and olive oil. Excluding nine compounds (see Discussion), a correlation was found (r2 = 0.99) between the solubility of a compound in olive oil and its convulsant potency (Figure 1). For 36 of the compounds (those following the correlation described in the preceding sentence), the product of the convulsive ED50 times the oil/gas partition coefficient was 2.80 +/- 1.24 atm. This value differed significantly (P < 0.0001) from those of four compounds below the line of correlation (0.134 +/- 0.062 atm) and five above the line (10.0 +/- 1.7 atm). Convulsant potency did not correlate (r2 = 0.003) with the solubility of a compound in saline (Figure 2).Figure 1: For 36 of 45 alkanes, ethers, aromatics, cyclic compounds, and noble gases, convulsant 50% effective doses (ED50 values; [large circle]) correlated inversely (r2 = 0.99) with the oil/gas partition coefficients at 37[degree sign]C. For 5 of 44 compounds (perfluorotoluene, flurothyl [CF3 CH2 OCH2 CF3], CF3 CHFCHFCF2 CF2 CF3, CF3 CH2 OCClF2, and c[(CFCF3)2 (CF2)2]), the convulsant ED50 was less than might have been predicted by the oil/gas partition coefficients ([square]). In contrast, the convulsant ED50 values for two n-alkanes (octane and nonane) and three cycloalkanes (hexane, hepatane, and octane) were greater than might have been predicted ([lozenge, open]). Points on the graph are derived from the values presented in Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, Table 4, and Table 5.Figure 2: For 36 of the 45 alkanes, ethers, aromatics, cyclic compounds, and noble gases shown inFigure 1 as open circles, convulsant 50% effective doses (ED50 values; [large circle]) did not correlate (r2 = 0.004) with saline/gas partition coefficients at 37[degree sign]C. As in Figure 1, the convulsant ED50 for perfluorotoluene, flurothyl (CF3 CH2-O-CH 2 CF3), CF3 CHFCHFCF (2) CF2 CF3, and c([CFCF3]2[CF2]2) lay under the graph for 36 of 45 compounds ([square]). In contrast to Figure 1, the convulsant ED50 values for two n-alkanes (octane and nonane) and three cycloalkanes (hexane, hepatane, and octane) also lay under the line of correlation ([lozenge, open]). Points on the graph are derived from the values presented in Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, Table 4, and Table 5.Discussion The Meyer-Overton hypothesis proposes that the potency of inhaled anesthetics directly correlates with their lipid solubility such that the product of anesthetic requirement (MAC) x the oil/gas partition coefficient is nearly constant with a value of approximately 2 atm [4]. The implication of this hypothesis is that anesthesia results from an action at some nonpolar phase (e.g., a lipid site or the hydrophobic interior of a protein). The discovery of certain lipid-soluble inhaled anesthetics (the nonimmobilizers) devoid of at least one anesthetic property-the capacity to produce immobility-or of compounds far less potent as immobilizers than predicted from their lipophilicity (transitional compounds) undermines this hypothesis [1-3]. Although the anesthetic potencies of nonimmobilizers and transitional compounds do not follow the hypothesis, it seems that the convulsant potency for most of these compounds do follow the hypothesis: the ED50 values for convulsions correlate with the oil/gas partition coefficient (Figure 1). This correlation also may be seen from the relative constancy of the product of the ED50 and the oil/gas partition coefficient in Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, Table 4, and Table 5 (Figure 3). For 36 of 45 compounds, the value for the product lies between 0.5 and 6 atm (i.e., within a factor of 3 from the 2-atm value for the Meyer-Overton constant); for 29 of 45 compounds, the value for the product lies between 1.0 and 4 atm.Figure 3: For 36 of 45 alkanes, ethers, aromatics, cyclic compounds, and noble gases ([large circle]), the product of the convulsant 50% effective dose (ED50) and the oil/gas partition coefficient lies between a value of 0.5 and 6 atm; 29 of 45 compounds have values between 1 and 4 atm. For perfluorotoluene, flurothyl (CF3 CH2 OCH2 CF3), CF3 CHFCHFCF2 CF2 CF3, and c([CFCF (3)]2[CF2]2), the product was <0.5 atm ([square]). In contrast, the product for two n-alkanes (octane and nonane) and three cycloalkanes (hexane, hepatane, and octane) was >6 atm ([lozenge, open]). Points on the graph are derived from the values presented in Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, Table 4, and Table 5.What are we to make of the exceptions? One suggestion comes from data for the effect of some nonimmobilizers on GABAA receptors. Two nonimmobilizers, c([CFCl]2 [CF2]2) and CF3(CClF)2 CF3, do not alter the effect of GABA on the GABAA receptor [14-16]. The products of the ED (50) and the oil/gas partition coefficient of these compounds are 2.4 and 2.3, respectively. However, flurothyl (CF3 CH2 OCH2 CF3) is a noncompetitive antagonist (or negative allosteric modulator) of GABA. It acts to decrease the maximal effect of GABA; thus, its effect is not surmountable by high concentrations of GABA (Matthew Krasowski, personal communication; [17,18]). The product of the ED50 and the oil/gas partition coefficient of flurothyl is 0.073, 1/30th the values for c([CFCl]2 [CF2]2 and CF3(CClF)2 CF3. This suggests that compounds that are more potent convulsants than would be predicted from their lipophilicity (i.e., CF3 CHFCHFCF2 CF2 CF3,CF3 CH2 OCH2 CF3 [flurothyl], perfluorotoluene, and c[(CFCF3)2 (CF2)2] may primarily produce convulsions by their capacity to block the action of GABA. Conversely, compounds that are less potent convulsants than would be predicted from their lipophilicity (i.e., c[CH2]6, c[CH2]7, c[CH2] (8), CH3[CH2]6 CH3, and CH3[CH2]7 CH3) may be less potent because, like conventional inhaled anesthetics [19-23] and alkanols [24,25] they may be able to enhance the effect of GABA. This would counteract (but incompletely) their inherent capacity to produce convulsions by an action at a nonpolar site. Thus, the most economical view of how nonimmobilizers and transitional compounds produce convulsions postulates two mechanisms. The first is an inherent, unexplained mechanism that involves a nonpolar phase. Unstated is the parallel fact that these compounds usually have a low affinity for a polar phase (see the saline/gas partition coefficients in Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, Table 4, and Table 5), unlike anesthetic compounds, which generally have an affinity for both polar and nonpolar phases. The second is a variable capacity to affect GABAA receptors. The hypothesis postulates that most nonimmobilizers and transitional compounds do not affect GABAA receptors. However, some (e.g., flurothyl) oppose the effect of GABA, thus decreasing the natural protection against convulsions afforded by the inhibitory stream of impulses conveyed by GABAA receptors. This leaves the first mechanism unopposed in its tendency to cause convulsions, and a convulsion ensues at a far lower concentration than would be predicted from the compound's lipophilicity. Some compounds are postulated to have a converse effect on GABAA receptors (e.g., c[CH2]6). Like conventional inhaled anesthetics, they enhance the effect of GABA. However, this effect is insufficient to provide the inhibitory input that prevents convulsions. Nonetheless, it is sufficient to partially oppose the convulsions initiated by the first mechanism, and the result is that a concentration higher than would be predicted by the compound's lipophilicity is required to produce convulsions. One nice result of this dual hypothesis is that it is immediately amenable to testing. At least one clinically used anesthetic, enflurane (CHF2 OCF2 CHFCl), predisposes subjects to convulsions [26,27]. However, convulsions are rarely seen with this anesthetic, and they usually must be provoked by either repetitive auditory stimulation [28] and/or by application of deeper levels of anesthesia and hypocapnia [29,30]. Enflurane enhances the effect of GABA on GABAA receptors [22,23,31], which may explain the rarity of convulsions with enflurane. That is, enflurane may represent an example of a compound in which the enhancement of the effect of GABA opposes the capacity of the effect on a nonpolar site to evoke convulsive activity. Some compounds tested in the present study were known from previous studies to be convulsants. Compounds other than those tested in the present study also have convulsant properties (Table 6 and Table 7). Although the definition of a convulsion in these earlier experiments may differ from that applied in the present experiments, such differences are not likely to be crucial. However, earlier studies differ in experimental design from that used in the present experiments (e.g., definition of the convulsant ED50 by administration of compounds over a range of concentrations, accurate measurement of inspired-arterial partial pressures differences, and monitoring and control of body temperature). For both the present (Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, Table 4, and Table 5) and earlier compounds (Table 6 and Table 7), molecular structure would not seem to predict convulsant activity. Many convulsants tend to have extremely low saline/gas partition coefficients, but flurothyl and perfluorotoluene are exceptions to this trend.Table 6: Examples of Previously Reported Inhaled ConvulsantsTable 7: Table 6-ContinuedOur studies have several potential limitations. Despite usual purities of >97% (and often >99%), it is possible that a small contaminant in certain compounds produced the convulsant effects. Similarly, we cannot exclude the possibility that convulsant effects of some compounds may have resulted from a metabolite. We assumed that the behavioral manifestations of a clonic convulsion arose from increased repetitive firing of central nervous system neurons, but we did not measure cerebral electrical activity. We do not believe that the convulsions resulted from hypoxia, because the animals usually breathed 100% oxygen and did not appear cyanotic before convulsive activity. In Table 1, Table 3, and Table 4, we include values for eight compounds that did not produce convulsions in all test animals. We assumed that the values for these animals only slightly underestimated the true ED50. This assumption follows from the observation that the dose-response curves (for dose versus the cumulative incidence of convulsions) for other convulsants are steep, as indicated by the small coefficient of variation (standard deviation divided by the mean value) for those compounds (see Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, Table 4, and Table 5). Thus, the concentration producing a convulsion in only one animal would only be slightly lower than the true ED50. Omitting the few compounds in which this assumption applied would not change our present results or conclusions. Some of the data for the present report were gathered in studies preliminary to determination of anesthetic potencies. In those studies, the focus was not on the definition of the ED50 for convulsions. Thus, the resulting tabulation of data for the present study includes compounds for which only one or two rats were studied and for which data were obtained during the application of an ascending concentration of test compound rather than steady-state, bracketing determinations. The resulting ED50 values probably overestimate the true ED50 values. However, because of the steepness of the dose-response curves, the resulting ED50 probably does not overestimate the value by more than 20%-30%, an amount that would not undermine our conclusions. In summary, the molecular structures of nonimmobilizer and transitional inhaled compounds do not seem to correlate with their ability to cause convulsions. These anesthetics may produce convulsions by two interrelated mechanisms. 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Caterers and Catering Services
Caterers UK: If you're planning a party or event in the near future and don't have a solid plan for food, then you'll want to get your skates on, because everybody knows that partyers like to eat, and your celebration is likely to be a washout if you don't organise a catering company in the UK to get some delicious food onto the table. Though naturally for lesser functions you could perhaps sort out the catering yourself or get friends and family to do it, for bigger events, you will certainly need to hire professional caterers, who'll be willing to set up all things concerning the catering aspect, leaving you with the task of organizing everything else. Caterers come in all shapes and sizes and can supply services for a wide selection of different events.
Catering - An Overview: You will realise if you have picked an outstanding caterer in the UK if you're the organiser of an event and you discover that you have plenty of time to take an active part in the party without continually getting stressed over the food side of things. There are a whole host of elements that you will need your caterer to arrange and this should include things like the use of venue facilities, the special dietary needs of your guests, the provision of cutlery, crockery and table cloths and planning menus.
Catering experiences in the UK, are obviously available in a lot of different forms, and you're able to access these regardless of whether your function is fairly simple, or if you need something quite lavish for that extra special occasion. Flame-grilling a few burgers and sausages on a BBQ would be catering at the simple end of the spectrum. Whilst an elegant dinner party with a three-course meal and wine served by a sommelier, would be at the opposite extreme. Depending on the theme and size of your celebration you might opt to have a vegetarian menu, a dinner party, late night snacks, a barbeque, a gourmet experience, a hog roast, a private chef, sandwiches or a finger buffet.
Ensuring that your event runs smoothly and successfully whether you've got 10 or 1000 guests attending, business caterers in the UK will provide tasty food and supply everything that's needed. Catering specialists in the UK are always ready 12 months of the year providing high quality food and beverages for pretty much any get together from black-tie events to outside gala's and sporting occasions.
Although, for an outdoor function in the UK you might be considering a BBQ or pig roast where the aroma and sight of the food preparation enhances the occasion, it's still quite possible to hold more formal events in an outside setting, so it's vital that, with lots of time to spare, you have a detailed discussion with your caterers so that they're conscious of precisely what you need. This isn't just to put your mind at rest that everything is in hand and accounted for, but also to enable the catering company to give you the best possible food experience when the big day finally arrives.
Compared with a formal sit-down meal, your party guests will have more alternatives to choose from and can be a lot more imaginative with their choice of meal when provided with a buffet style dining experience. With choices like veggies, sandwiches, salads and different meats to pick from, your event guests will be able to find something suitable, even if they've got particular dietary preferences. The option to come back for a second or even third helping is likewise an extra attraction of buffet meals. From your angle, buffets are also less expensive, given that fewer staff are required.
Lots of catering services in the UK may also have proprietary venues where they can provide not only the food and drink, but also event management as well. The guidance in preparation and planning will be crucial and can undoubtedly help make your function in the UK run efficiently and with the minimum of fuss. The other good thing about using a caterer's own amenities is that there's much less likelihood of problems and complications occurring since they're going to be acquainted with all of the facilities on-site and will probably have held many functions there over the years.
In order to verify that any specific caterers in the UK can provide the services that they're marketing, you should invariably ask to look at references and testimonials from former customers. It's also sensible to check out online reviews to learn what other folks have to say about them. In addition to helping you to avoid choosing substandard or unreliable caterers who have no evidence to substantiate their inflated claims of good services, this also protects the reputation of good quality caterers who have been serving the community for several years. Additionally, when a catering company in the UK does give you an excellent service, it is only fair to leave some positive reviews to help reinforce their reputation and help future clients make the right choice of caterer.
Folks from Edinburgh, Cardiff, Glasgow, Sheffield, Scotland, Bristol, Wales, Birmingham, Belfast, England, Greater Manchester, London, Swansea, Northern Ireland, Liverpool, have recently enquired about UK outside caterers.
Recent UK catering enquiries: In Chichester Ms Claudia Alcock needs a caterer to do the catering for an anniversary party. Ms Ruby Ballantyne was looking to get a quotation from a caterer in Leicester to do the food for a graduation party. Coby Spencer was in search of a caterer who can do a running buffet for an office party in Redcar. Ilyas Robins was asking about a caterer to do a finger buffet for a corporate event in Reading. Ms Safiyyah Lambert was wishing to get a quote from a caterer in York to do a running buffet for a party. Julian and Thalia Booth were trying to get a quote from a caterer in Beverley who can do the catering for a children's party in a local sports pavillion. Stefan Yates was wishing to get a price quote from a caterer in Prestwick to do gourmet catering for a cocktail party. Mr and Mrs Adams are looking for a caterer who can do the catering for a wedding reception in their garden in Dartford.
Catering Courses UK
For anyone in the UK who is eager for a career in hospitality and catering there are a range of City & Guilds courses available in local colleges to help you on your way, including Introduction to Employment in the Hospitality Industry, Food and Beverage Service, Hospitality Team Member, Professional Cookery, Cookery and Service for the Hospitality Industry, Sustainability in Professional Kitchens, Introduction to the Hospitality Industry (SCQF), Hospitality and Catering Apprenticeships (SASE) and SVQs in Hospitality and Catering (Tags: Hospitality Courses UK, Catering Courses UK, Catering Apprenticeships UK).
The Different Types of Catering
- Corporate Catering
- Party Catering
- Buffet Catering
- Social Event Catering
- BBQ Catering
- Wedding Catering
- Sit-Down Catering
- Outside Catering
- Concession Catering
- Hog Roast Catering
- Food Truck Catering
The finest caterers in the UK should also be able to provide sandwiches and nibbles, packed lunch catering, anniversary party catering, catering for funerals, indian catering, carvery catering, mobile catering in the UK, catering for large events, pig roast hire, cheap event catering, catering for offices, catering for christenings, pig roast event catering, event catering, gourmet catering, catering for birthday parties, catering for afternoon tea, funeral catering, catering for a barbeque, classic catering, vegetarian and vegan catering, sandwich platters, catering for parties, catering for school proms, catering for vegetarians, asian catering, hot and cold fork buffets, cocktail parties and a whole host of other catering related services.
Also find: Bristol caterers, Swansea caterers, Greater Manchester caterers, Glasgow caterers, Sheffield caterers, Belfast caterers, London caterers, Cardiff caterers, Wales caterers, Birmingham caterers, Scotland caterers, England caterers, Liverpool caterers, Edinburgh caterers, Northern Ireland caterers and more.
Catering Services UK
- UK Children's Party Caterers
- UK Pig Roast Caterers
- UK Gourmet Caterers
- UK Business Lunch Catering
- UK Mobile Caterers
- UK Event Caterers
- UK Corporate Caterers
- UK Outside Caterers
- UK Vegetarian Caterers
- UK Funeral Caterers
- UK Party Caterers
- UK Barbeque Caterers
- UK Buffet Caterers
- UK Garden Party Catering
Caterers UK
In the UK area you can additionally get: Pembroke catering services, Cheltenham catering services, Manchester catering, Erskine caterers, Kettering catering services, Aberdeen catering services, Hamilton catering services, Gateshead catering, Oxford caterers, Milton Keynes catering, Telford catering, Kettering catering, Preston catering, Scarborough catering, Newcastle Upon Tyne catering services, Swindon caterers, Doncaster catering services, Lichfield catering services, Kettering caterers, Newcastle Upon Tyne caterers, Stevenage catering, Warrington catering, Reading catering, Cheltenham catering, Kings Lynn catering, Dartford catering, Kilmarnock catering services, Gateshead catering services, Market Harborough catering, Glasgow catering services.
Choice of further reading: Catering Handbook, Catering Business (Bowe Packer), WJEC Hospitality and Catering for GCSE (Jacqui Housley and Judy Gardiner), Catering: A Guide to Managing a Successful Business Operation, Catering Complete (Doug Pinkston), How to Start a Home-Based Personal Chef Business (Denise Vivaldo).
More UK caterers: Esher, Bedworth, Portsmouth, Amersham, Hatfield, Hoddesdon, Salisbury, Chester, Dartford, Holmfirth, Ramsgate, Neston, Sutton Coldfield, Salford, Inverness, Newark-on-Trent, Wokingham, Harpenden, Stroud, Falmouth, Rushden, West Bridgford, Irvine, Eccles, Fleet, Weybridge, Bentley, Littlehampton, Cleethorpes, Maidenhead, Wallsend, Gillingham, Hartlepool, Hamilton, Godalming, Maghull, Runcorn, Lytham St Annes, Caerphilly, Leeds, Epsom, Lisburn, Ewell, Newbury, Arnold, Yeovil, Dumfries, Glenrothes, Maldon, Ashington, Margate, Durham, Witham, Reading, Motherwell, Aberdeen, Milton Keynes, Prescot, Broadstairs, Wednesbury, Sheffield, Tamworth, Abingdon, Falkirk, Yeadon, Billingham, Romiley, Winkfield, Hemel Hempstead, Derry, Hertford, Kidsgrove, Huddersfield, Southampton, Peterlee, Crosby, Bushey, Hindley, Kettering, Goole, Pudsey, Hailsham, Kingswinford, Chesterfield, Sutton-in-Ashfield, Clacton-on-Sea, Dover, Ashton-under-Lyne, Bradford, Coleraine, Tilehurst, Oxford, Chapeltown, Bedford, Airdrie, Warwick, Belfast, Stanford-le-Hope, Barnsley, Gloucester, Hedge End, Sittingbourne.
Caterers in the UK area.
Catering UK - Mobile Catering UK - Kid's Party Caterers UK - UK - Corporate Caterers UK - Gourmet Caterers UK - Event Caterers UK - Buffet Caterers UK - Outside Caterers UK

subset: commoncrawl


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Windows 10: Quick Windows 10 upgrade question..
Discus and support Quick Windows 10 upgrade question.. in Windows 10 Installation and Upgrade to solve the problem; Long time lurker, first time poster.. I have a Windows 7machine in a closet that I use as a NAS.. It has no monitor or keyboard attached- I access... Discussion in 'Windows 10 Installation and Upgrade' started by ddiehl, Dec 20, 2015.
Quick Windows 10 upgrade question..
Quick Windows 10 upgrade question.. - Similar Threads - Quick upgrade question
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Quick and simple questionin Windows 10 Ask InsiderQuick and simple question: So guys, I've been using Windows 10 LTSC for like a year now and been perfectly fine, but now I have to downgrade to Pro edition. I've read that you cant downgrade to Pro without wiping all the data, but can I downgrade losslessly if I buy and change the product key to Pro...
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GVES Weekly Update
March 15, 2019
Upcoming Events
3/18: Health/Guidance Switch
3/18: 5th Grade Mosaic Legacy Project begins
3/20: YouthTruth Survey
3/20: Lunch Buddies
3/20: 4th Grade Science Night - See Notes
3/21: Rock Your Socks
3/21: STEAM Night--See Notes
3/22: GVES Spirit Day
World Down Syndrome Day
On Thursday, March 21 2019, GVES will be joining other schools and organizations around the world in celebrating WORLD DOWN SYNDROME DAY.
Together we will create a single global voice for advocating for the rights, inclusion and well being of people with Down syndrome in our schools, community and around the world. 3/21, World Down Syndrome Day, was selected to signify the uniqueness of the triplication (trisomy) of the 21st chromosome which leads to Down Syndrome.
GVES Helping Hands Club will be selling socks for $1.00. Please complete this form, and send money to school labeled "Rock Your Socks" with your child. We will be packaging and distributing socks to homerooms on March 13 and March 20. Please send exact amounts. We will not be able to provide change, any extra money will be accepted as a donation.
All proceeds go to Down Syndrome Association of Delaware.
Thanks so much for your support and we can't wait to see your mismatched socks!!
Student Placement Process
As we wrap up spring conferences, we naturally start to think about next school year. We have an extensive placement process that uses student assessment and observation data to help us place each student into next year's classes. Our teachers collect this information, and it goes to our placement team. The team creates mixed-ability homerooms that are well-balanced by student gender, background, personality, and development. As part of this process, we do not accept requests for specific teachers. Such requests are not sent to the team that makes the classes.
On some occasions, there may be information specific to your child beyond what will be shared at spring conferences. If you believe there are circumstances that may not be addressed within the comprehensive placement process, please complete this form by May 1, 2019 for students who will be attending GVES in the fall. Teacher requests should not be included in these letters. The information you provide will go directly to the GVES principals in lieu of letters or emails regarding student placement.
Thank you for your understanding and confidence in our process to place all of our students.
Jaguar Jog Time Again
Get ready, Get Set, REGISTER!
Registration for the 5th Annual Jaguar Jog is now open.The afternoon of Family Fun will be held on April 28, 2019 from 1-4 pm. We will have the 5K and 1 mile races, along with entertainment by Charismatic Entertainment, field day games, Kona Ice and new this year - John Williams of RE/MAX Excellence will be raffling off a laptop computer! All who register and are in attendance are eligible to WIN the laptop! Other prizes include: a chance to win an iFLY gift card for all GVES students who run the 5K and water ice parties for the classes with the most participation!
Go to the website for more information and to register.
To volunteer please use this link https://www.signupgenius.com/go/805044aacaf28a20-fifth
If you are interested in sponsoring the event, please contact Jennifer Connolly. We are thrilled to have John Williams as our presenting sponsor and Charismatic Entertainment as our entertainment for the day! But we have plenty of room for more businesses to get involved.
Home and School Update
4th Grade Science Night – Wednesday, March 20th
The GVES Home and School Association is excited to sponsor the 4th grade Science Night. The event will take place in the GVES Cafeteria on Wednesday, March 20th from 7:00-8:00pm.
This event is intended to encourage the love of science with our students by allowing them to participate in hands-on science experiments at 5 different stations. There will be raffle prizes given away during the event as well.
Space is limited to the first 50 students who register. Others will be placed on a waiting list and will be contacted if space becomes available. This is not a drop off event, each student must be accompanied by a parent or guardian. Given space constraints, siblings cannot attend.
We are also looking for parent volunteers for the night of the event, so if you are interested please indicate that on your registration form or contact Laurie Harding at email@example.com or Kris Thomson at email@example.com.
To register, please use this link: bit.ly/gvesciencenight2019
Your registration will be confirmed in a future email. If you have questions, please contact Laurie Harding at email@example.com or Kris Thomson at firstname.lastname@example.com. Be sure to register early before the 50 spots fill up.
Lunch Buddies – Wednesday, March 20th
Our next GVE Lunch Buddies day will be Wednesday, March 20th. If you have signed up for that day, we'll look forward to having you here to have lunch with your child. Any questions, please contact Renee Kabakoff (firstname.lastname@example.com ) or Stacy Schneeweis (email@example.com)
GV STEAM Night
Garnet Valley STEAM Night: Thursday, March 21st at Garnet Valley High School
(5:15 to 5:45 arrive and sign in, 5:45 - 8:30 welcome and activities)
Garnet Valley STEAM Club is hosting STEAM night to introduce students across the district to STEAM and its related fields and topics. STEAM stands for Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts and Math; This event will also introduce students to STEAM thought process. Both parents and children are welcome to attend, but prior sign up is necessary. Space is the theme for the event and people who sign-up will be able to attend the Expo Center and a corresponding activity track. The Expo Center will have student and company presentations such as Mathnasium and Boeing. Let's shoot for the stars together at STEAM night 2019.
For more detailed information regarding the event including information about the activities, as well as, the signing-up information, visit our website linked here.
For the sign-up link for the event click here. Prior registration by March 18 is required and walk ins are strongly discouraged.
Garnet Valley Music Gala Concert & Fundraiser:
Garnet Valley CTC Quick Tip #29
The results are back from the 2017 Pennsylvania Youth Survey for Garnet Valley's 6th, 8th, 10th, and 12th graders. We also have results from 2013 and 2015.
The results of this anonymous survey are self-reported and represent 83.9% of our students.
Did you know? "Overall, 33.5% of students in Garnet Valley engaged in gambling for money or anything of value in their lifetime. The most frequently reported form of gambling was "sporting events or sports pools" reported by 14% of GV students who had gambled in the past 12 months (compared to 13.8% at the state level)." PAYS 2017 Garnet Valley School District
Call to action… Since gambling operates on the same reward pathways as ATOD addiction, early gambling behavior can pose a risk for developing other anti-social behaviors. Click on the link below to learn more
Parent Workshop
Jaguarmax Radio Podcast
Want a chance to be on the podcast? Students can submit a book review here and you might get to read it and be on iTunes!
New episodes have been released! Check us out on iTunes.
Jaguarmax Radio Podcast on iTunes
Important Links
After School Activity Dismissal Procedures - Dismissal Locations
VEFLS - Foreign Language Contact Person, email@example.com or 610-717-2755
Cafeteria Information - Menus and Payments
GVES Yearly Calendar - Important Dates
Safe Arrival - Attendance Reporting App
GVSD App - Download app here
MySchoolBucks - Online Payments
District Text Messaging Opt-In - Registration Info
Parent Right to Know Information
Connect with GVES! Now Podcasting!
Garnet Valley Elementary School
"A Caring Community of Learners"
Est. 1997
The mission of our learning community is to maximize the potential of all students by empowering them to do their personal best.


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The Super Bowl is as famous for commercials as it is for football — but this year, some ads have already been banned for being too sexy for the game.
The most recent banned Super Bowl ad comes from PETA, the People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. It might not be what you'd expect, though. Here's the too-hot-for-TV spot, entitled "Veggie Love."
The Super Bowl commercial, NBC said, "depicts a level of sexuality exceeding [its] standards." The list of problematic elements, posted in its entirety here (PDF), is a bit funny to read. Some of the shots NBC wanted removed, in the words of the network advertising standards executive:
• licking pumpkin
• touching her breast with her hand while eating broccoli
• pumpkin from behind between legs
• rubbing pelvic region with pumpkin
• screwing herself with broccoli (fuzzy)
• asparagus on her lap appearing as if it is ready to be inserted into vagina
• licking eggplant
• rubbing asparagus on breast
Some menu, eh?
Super Bowl Commercials 2009: No Affairs
The second spot banned from the game this year is by AshleyMadison.com, a dating site geared toward married people who want to have affairs. (Yes, that is seriously the site's entire focus.)
The commercial in question featured a sexy gal with the slogan: "WHO Are You Doing After the Game?"
Seemingly, it was a bit too spicy for the Super Bowl.
Super Bowl Banned Ads: GoDaddy's Commercials
Even a company as innocuous as a domain registrar can run into trouble when it comes to Super Bowl ads. GoDaddy has had a handful of Super Bowl commercials banned over the years. Here are three GoDaddy spots that never saw airtime.
Think any of the above ads deserved to be stricken from the Super Bowl? Or are the standards enforcers getting overzealous in their efforts? Voice your thoughts below.


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Mini's pint-size convertible gets fresh styling and lots of British flags for 2019
Being a convertible, the 2019 Mini Cooper Convertible does lack for truck space, but it's still useable.
The 2019 Mini Cooper Convertible showing off its new lightweight alloy wheels.
The 2019 Mini Cooper Convertible has optional LED headlights.
The optional LED headlight with integrated turn signal.
How many Union Jacks can Mini fit on a small car?
The new Union Jack tail lights that come as standard on all 2019 Mini Cooper Convertibles.
Mini has a new more simple, flattened corporate badge.
Be respectful, keep it civil and stay on topic. We delete comments that violate our policy, which we encourage you to read. Discussion threads can be closed at any time at our discretion.


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2 edition of Promise and progress found in the catalog.
Promise and progress
Arthur M. Lee
1992 by Arizona Public Service Co. in Phoenix, Ariz. (8610 N. 19th Ave., Phoenix 85021) .
Written in English
Edition Notes
|Arthur M. Lee ; with the assistance of many others.
|LC Classifications
|The Physical Object
|ii, 149 p. :
|Number of Pages
|ID Numbers
|Open Library
|LC Control Number
Pilgrim's Progress - Chapter 1 As I walked through the wilderness of this world, I lighted on a certain place where was a den, and laid me down in that place to sleep; and as I slept, I dreamed a dream. Fifty-five years ago, Helen L. Taylor took John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress and simplified the vocabulary and concepts for young listeners while keeping the storyline intact. The result was a classic in itself, which has now sold over , copies.
Photofact Technical Service Data
Seeing the invisible in late antiquity and the early Middle Ages
The sex myth
Antitrust Adviser/With Supplement
The Competitive City
Asia at the crossroads: Japan, Korea, China, Philippine Islands
Careers in forestry
Sport climbers guide to Skyline Boulevard
James Iredell Waddell.
Anthology of Islamic literature
Operative gynaecology.
Progress and Promise was a traveling exhibit showcasing the heritage and presence of Northeast Ohio's Catholic Sisters. The Progress and Promise exhibit toured parishes, universities, the Cleveland Public Library, motherhouses and nursing facilities.
The initiative also produced a companion book that expanded on the history and themes of the exhibit and was disseminated to religious congregations. Sep 17, · Walt and the Promise of Progress City is a personal journey that explores the process through which meaningful and functional spaces have been created by Walt Disney and his artists as well as how guests understand and experience those spaces/5(49).
Promise & Progress, is our magazine featuring the recent discoveries, philanthropy, hopeful survivorship stories, and most Promise and progress book news in the cancer world. To subscribe to any of our publications, email Publications Editor Valerie Mehl.
"Walt and the Promise of Progress City" is an interesting chronology of Walt Disney's building projects with a mind toward the key influences in Walt's interests and life Promise and progress book led to EPCOT.
While it is not the critique of EPCOT and Walt's vision from an urban planning and architectural point of view that I had hoped (it is entirely too sympathetic to be even close to a critique), it is an interesting book nonetheless/5.
Published inAn Era of Progress and Promise documents topics discussed and explored at the Clifton Conference, held Augustat the home of W. Hartshorn in Clifton, Massachusetts. Conference attendees came from thirty-four African American educational institutions, Promise and progress book states, and nine missionary organizations.
May 15, · The Pilgrim's Progress from This World to That Which Is to Come is a Christian allegory written by John Bunyan and published in February John Bunyan - The Pilgrim's Progress: John Bunyan: hotseattleseahawksjerseys.com: Books/5(). Historic health achievements are remaking a world that is both worrisome and full of opportunities.
Whether the peril or promise of that progress prevails, Bollyky explains, depends on what we do next.A Council on Foreign Relations Book. The most succinct summary of the action in the The Pilgrim's Progress is probably the extended Promise and progress book of the work: The Pilgrim's Promise and progress book from this World to That Which is to Come: Delivered under the Similitude of a Dream.
In the first part of Pilgrim's Progress, Christian recieves his calling from the Evangelist and leaves his wife Promise and progress book children behind in the City of Destruction.
The Pilgrim's Progress from This World, to That Which Is to Come is a Christian allegory written by John Promise and progress book is regarded as one of the most Promise and progress book works of religious, theological fiction in English literature.
It has been translated into more than languages, and has never been out of hotseattleseahawksjerseys.com: John Promise and progress book. The Pilgrim's Progress, religious allegory by the English writer John Bunyan, published in two parts in and The work is a symbolic vision of the good man's pilgrimage through life.
The work is a symbolic vision of the good man's pilgrimage through life. The Pilgrim's Progress As a Literary Classic The Pilgrim's Progress is a paradox.
On the one hand it is a work of folk literature. Eis makes it a book of the common Promise and progress book, just like the Bible. Erough the ages, parents have read The Pilgrim's Progress to their children much as they read Bible stories to them.
Reinforcing this identity of being. Read a Plot Overview of the entire book or a chapter by chapter Summary and Analysis. See a complete list of the characters in The Pilgrim's Progress and in-depth analyses of Christian, Apollyon, Christiana, and Great-heart.
Aug 08, · Free kindle book and epub digitized and Promise and progress book by Project Gutenberg. Jan 02, · In such elite company, The Pilgrim's Progress stands out. No one from Bunyan's social status (uneducated, working-class poor) has ever written a book the caliber of The Pilgrim's Progress.
The hand of God has been upon this book, and Bunyan's masterpiece continues to bless millions more pilgrims in their journey. The Pilgrim's Progress Quotes. Read it so, if you will, in my book." ― John Bunyan, The Pilgrim's Progress.
29 likes. Like "It is always hard to see the purpose in wilderness wanderings until after they are over. 6." ― John Bunyan, The Pilgrim's Progress: From This World to That Which Is to Come.
The Winds of Winter is the planned sixth novel in the epic fantasy series A Song of Ice and Fire by American writer George R. Martin. Martin believes the last two volumes of the series will total over 3, manuscript pages. They will take readers farther north than any of the previous books, and the first of the two will feature the Others.
Martin has refrained from making hard estimates Author: George R. Martin. Get this from a library. Promise and progress: a study of students at the University of Glasgow in the nineteen-sixties.
[Stanley Nisbet; Barbara L Napier; Sadie B Bowie]. My name is on the cover of Walt and the Promise of Progress City in itty-bitty letters under the much larger name of Sam Gennawey. That's fitting because I only wrote the foreword. Sam did the real work. It's his book. Forewords are often written in first person, share personal experiences, describe the foreword writer's relationship with the book's author, make the reader more.
Information on buying and collecting The Pilgrim's Progress From This World, To That Which Is To Come by Bunyan, John with a guide to first edition identification. Book reviews cover the content, themes and worldviews of fiction books, not their literary merit, and equip parents to decide whether a book is appropriate for their children.
The inclusion of a book's review does not constitute an endorsement by Focus on the Family. Pilgrim's Progress Questions and Answers The Question and Answer sections of our study guides are a great resource to ask questions, find answers, and discuss literature.
Home Pilgrim's Progress Q & A. Sep 04, · The Pilgrim's Progress. John Bunyan. (8 Reviews) Free Download. Read Online.
This book is available for free download in a number of formats - including epub, pdf, azw, mobi and more. You can also read the full text online using our ereader/5(8).
Note: Citations are based on reference standards. However, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study.
The specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. Jul 10, · If you have never read The Pilgrim's Progress by John Bunyan, you have truly missed a blessing.
Several years ago, I received a gift in the form of an old book that contained some of Bunyan's writings. In that old book was a copy of The Pilgrim's Progress. I have been greatly encouraged through my personal reading of this great old allegorical tale that seems to transcend time and culture.
A Timeless Tale of Faith's Triumph The Pilgrim's Progress, written by John Bunyan over years ago, is one of the most widely-circulated books ever to be published in the English language. In spite of its popularity in the past, many people today are not familiar with this masterpiece.
Join respected pastor and theologian Dr. Derek Thomas as he takes readers along this allegorical journey. Mar 09, · The s: A Decade of Promise and Heartbreak The s contained hope and failure, innocence and cynicism.
A key factor was the publication of Rachel Carson's book Author: Kenneth T. Walsh. Jul 28, · The forums in the Christian Congregations category are now open only to Christian members.
Please review our current Faith Groups list for information on which faith groups are considered to be Christian faiths.
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256 Ancient and Modern History.
kings of all countries. Each Norman captain had
a town or a village given him for his share.
Fier-a-bras dying, his brother, Drogo, is chosen
sovereign of Apulia in his stead, in 1046; upon
which Robert Guiscard, and his two younger broth-
ers, leave Coutances, to have their share in so much
good fortune. Old Tancred is astonished to see him-
self the father of a race of conquerors ; and the Nor-
man name strikes terror into the neighboring states
of Apulia, and even into the popes themselves. Rob-
ert Guiscard, and his brothers, followed by a train
of their countrymen, go in small troops on a pil-
grimage to Rome, and marching through the coun-
tries with their staves in their hands, at length arrive
undiscovered in Apulia.
The emperor Henry III., though strong enough at
that time to hold the Romans in subjection, was
too weak to make head against these conquerors;
and therefore, by a solemn agreement, he invested
them with those territories which they had acquired
by invasion. They were at that time 1047 n
possession of all Apulia, the earldom of Aversa, and
one-half of the dukedom of Benevento.
Soon after, we see this family raised to be a royal
house, and founder of the kingdoms of Naples and
Sicily, and a fief of the empire. How can it have
happened that this portion of the empire should have
been so soon rent from it, and become a fief to the
see of Rome, at a time when the popes possessed
hardly a foot of territory, were not even the masters
Naples and Sicily. 257
in Rome, nor so much as acknowledged in the march
of Ancona, which had been given them by Otho
the Great ? This event is almost as astonishing as the
conquests of the Norman gentlemen. But here fol-
lows the explanation of this enigma. Pope Leo IX.
wanted to get possession of the town of Benevento,
which belonged to the princes of the race of the
kings of Lombardy, who had been dispossessed by
In 1053 the emperor Henry III. did in effect give
him this town, in exchange for the fief of Bamberg
in Germany ; and the sovereign pontiff is to this day
in possession of Benevento, in virtue of this dona-
tion. The new Norman princes were dangerous
enemies. There can be no conquests without acts of
great injustice; these they committed, and the
emperor wanted to have less formidable vassals.
Leo IX., after having excommunicated them, took
it in his head to march against them, at the head
of an army, with which Henry III. had furnished
him, and gave them battle. History does not men-
tion how the spoils were to be divided, it only takes
notice of there being a numerous army, and that the
pope further increased it by Italian troops, who
enlisted themselves as for a holy war, and that
among the captives, there were a number of bishops.
In 1054 the Normans, who had always conquered
in small numbers, were not a fourth part so strong
as the pope; but then they were accustomed to
fighting. Robert Guiscard, with his brothers, Hum-
Vol. 24 17
258 Ancient and Modern History.
phrey and Richard, count of Aversa, each at the
head of a small, but well-disciplined troop, cut the
whole German army to pieces, and put the Italians
to flight. The pope himself escaped to Civitade, a
town near the field of battle; thither the Normans
followed him, seized him, and carried him with them
prisoner, into that very town of Benevento, which
had first given occasion to this enterprise.
Pope Leo IX. had been made a saint, probably
he might have done penance, for having spilt so
much blood to no purpose, and for having carried
so many of the clergy into the field. It is certain
that he did repent, especially when he saw himself
treated with so much respect by his conquerors,
who yet resolutely kept him prisoner for a whole
year. They restored Benevento to the princes of
Lombardy; and it was not till after the extinction
of that family that the popes at length got posses-
sion of this town.-
It may be easily conceived, that the Norman
princes were more piqued against the emperor, who
had furnished such a powerful army for their
destruction, than against the pope, who commanded
it. They were now resolved to free themselves for-
ever from any pretensions or rights which either of
the two emperors, between which they were sit-
uated, might claim over them. Accordingly they
continued to push their conquests, and made them-
selves masters of Calabria and Capua, during the
minority of Henry IV. and while the Greek Em-
Naples and Sicily. 259
pire was in a state still more feeble than that of
a minority.
The conquest of Calabria was made by the sons
of Tancred of Hauteville, and that of Capua, by the
descendants of its first deliverers. These two vic-
torious governments had none of those quarrels
which so frequently divide the victors and lessen
their power. The use of history obliges me to stop
a little here to take notice that Richard of Aversa,
who conquered Capua, caused himself to be crowned
with the same ceremonies of consecration, and the
holy oil, that had been made use of for Clovis. The
dukes of Benevento were always consecrated in the
same manner ; and the successors of Richard did the
like. Which shows beyond contradiction that every
one establishes customs as he pleases.
Robert Guiscard, duke of Apulia and Calabria,
and Richard, count of Aversa and Capua, both so by
right of conquest, and both determined to be inde-
pendent of the two emperors, made use of the same
precaution, in regard to their sovereignties, which
several private persons did in those times of con-
fusion and rapine, for their patrimonial possessions ;
they gave them to the Church, under the name of an
offering, oblata, and continued in possession of them,
on paying a slight acknowledgment. This was the
only recourse left the weaker party in the unsettled
governments of Italy; and the Normans, though
sufficiently powerful, made use of it as a safeguard
against the emperors, who might in time become
160 Ancient and Modern History.
more powerful. Robert Guiscard, and his brother,
Richard of Capua, when excommunicated by Pope
Leo IX., kept him prisoner. The same conquer-
ors excommunicated by Nicholas II., paid him hom-
age, and put under the protection of the Church, not
only all that they had actually taken, but whatever
they might take in time to come. In 1059 Duke Rob-
ert did homage for Sicily, which he had not yet con-
quered, declared himself a feudatory to the see of
Rome for all his dominions, promising to pay an
acknowledgment of twelve deniers for each plough,
which amounted to a considerable sum. This homage
was an act of political piety, something like that of
the Peter's pence paid by England to the see of
Rome, or the two pounds' weight of gold given by
the first kings of Portugal, or in short like the volun-
tary submission paid by many kingdoms to the
authority of the Church.
But, according to all the laws of feudal right
established in Europe, these princes, as vassals of the
empire, could not choose a new lord paramount with-
out making themselves guilty of rebellion towards
the emperor, and putting it in his power to con-
fiscate their states. The disputes which happened
between the Church and the empire, and what is
more, the power of the Norman princes themselves,
put it out of the power of the emperors to exercise
their just rights. These conquerors, in making
themselves vassals to the pope, became the protect-
ors, and not unfrequently the masters of their new
Naples and Sicily. 261
lords. Duke Robert having received a standard
from the pope, and become the champion of that
church whose enemy he had been, passed over to
Sicily with his brother Roger, and conquered that
island from the Greeks and Mahometans, who, in
1067, divided it between them; these people sub-
mitted upon condition of enjoying their religion and
But there still remained to be reduced all that part
which at present composes the kingdom of Naples.
And there were still reigning princes of Salerno, the
descendants of those who had first called the Nor-
mans into that country. These the Normans at
length drove out, and Duke Robert made himself
master of the city of Salerno: thus dispossessed of
their dominions, these princes took refuge in the
Campagna di Roma, and put themselves under the
protection of Pope Gregory VIL, the same who
made the emperors tremble by his great power. But
Robert, this vassal and defender of the Church, fol-
lowed them there ; upon which Gregory VII. did
not fail to thunder out his excommunications against
him, which ended in the conquest of the whole ter-
ritory of Benevento, of which Robert made himself
master, after the death of the last duke of the Lom-
bard race.
In 1077, Gregory VIL, whom we shall see so
haughty and so dreadful to the emperors and kings,
showed nothing but the greatest complaisance
towards the excommunicated Robert, to whom he
262 Ancient and Modern History.
gave absolution, and from whom he received the
town of Benevento, which has ever since continued
in the see of Rome.
In 1084 that great dispute between the emperor
Henry IV. and Gregory VII., of which we shall
now give an account, broke out. Henry had made
himself master of Rome, and held the pope besieged
in the castle of St. Angelo. Robert, who was then
in Dalmatia, making new conquests, flew to the
assistance of the holy father, whom he rescued from
the united powers of the Germans and Romans, made
himself master of his person, and carried him to
Salerno, where this pope, who had deposed so many
kings, died the prisoner, and under the protection, of
Norman gentlemen.
We must not be surprised at seeing so many king-
doms sending forth knights-errant, who became pow-
erful sovereigns by their exploits, and entered into
the imperial families. This is precisely what hap-
pened to Robert Guiscard, and what we shall see
more than once happen during the Crusades. Rob-
ert married his daughter to Constantine, son of
Michael Ducas, emperor of Constantinople. But this
marriage did not prove happy ; he had soon both his
daughter and son-in-law to avenge, and determined
to go and dethrone the emperor of the East, after
having humbled him of the West.
The court of Constantinople was but one con-
tinued tempest. Michael Ducas was driven from
the throne by Nicephorus, surnamed Botaniates.
Naples and Sicily. 263
Robert's son-in-law was made a eunuch, and at
length Alexius Comnenus, who afterwards suffered
so much by the Crusades, mounted the throne. Rob-
ert, during these troubles, was already advancing
through Dalmatia and Macedonia, and carried ter-
ror and dismay to the very gates of Constantinople.
Bohemond, his son by a first marriage, who was
afterwards so famous in the Crusades, accompanied
him to the conquest of that empire. We may see by
this, how much Alexius Comnenus had reason to
fear the Crusades, since Bohemond began by at-
tempting to dethrone him.
The death of Robert, in 1085, which happened
in the island of Corfu, put a period to his enter-
prises. The princess Anna Comnena, daughter to
the emperor Alexius, and who wrote part of the
history of those times, looks upon Robert as no bet-
ter than a public robber, and is greatly incensed at
his insolence, in presuming to marry his daughter to
the son of an emperor ; but she should have consid-
ered, that the history of the empire itself furnishes
examples of much more considerable vicissitudes of
fortune ; and that everything in this world yields to
strength and power.
264 Ancient and Modern History.
THE design of making the conquest of the Greek
Empire vanished at the death of Robert. But his
family secured their establishments in Italy. Count
Roger, his brother, remained master of Sicily ; Duke
Roger, his son, continued in possession of almost
all the country now called by the name of the king-
dom of Naples ; and Bohemond, his other son, went
and reduced Antioch, after a fruitless attempt to
share in the dominions of his brother, Duke Roger.
But why did neither Count Roger, the sovereign
of Sicily, nor his nephew Roger, duke of Apulia,
take the title of kings? There must be a time for
all things. Robert Guiscard, the first conqueror, had
been invested as duke, by Pope Nicholas II. His
brother Roger had likewise been honored by Robert
Guiscard, as count of Sicily. All these ceremonies
did, however, only confer titles, without adding any-
thing to their power. But the count of Sicily enjoyed
a right which has been always kept up, and which
no other sovereign in Europe has ever had; he
became a kind of second pope, in his own island.
The popes had assumed a right of sending legates
to all the states of Christendom, whom they called
legates a later e; these exercised jurisdiction over all
the churches, exacting tithes, bestowing benefices,
and exercising and extending the pontifical power,
Sicily. 265
as far as the circumstances and interests of the
potentates would admit. And temporal affairs being
almost always connected with spiritual ones, they
brought civil causes also before their tribunal; so
that everything in which the Church was the least
concerned, made a part of their department, as mar-
riages, wills, promises by oath, and the like. They
were indeed a kind of proconsuls, despatched by the
ecclesiastical emperor over all the West. By this
means, Rome, always feeble, always plunged in
anarchy, frequently enslaved by the Germans, and
a prey to every sort of calamity, still continued to
be the mistress of nations. Hence it is, that the his-
tory of each nation is always the history of Rome.
No sooner had Count Roger conquered Sicily
from the Mahometans and Greeks, and settled the
Latin Church in that island, than Pope Urban II.
sent a legate thither. This country, indeed, seemed
of all others, to stand the most in need of a legate
to regulate the hierarchy, or church government,
among a people, of which one-half were Mahometans
and the other one-half of the Greek communion.
And yet this was the only country where the right
of legation was forever abolished. Count Roger,
though a great benefactor to the Latin Church, to
whom he restored Sicily, would not suffer a king to
be sent under the title of legate, into a country which
he had conquered.
Pope Urban, wholly intent upon the Crusades, and
desirous to keep well with a family of heroes, so
266 Ancient and Modern History.
necessary to this grand enterprise, granted a bull to
Count Roger, in 1098, the year before his death, by
which he recalled his legate, and made Roger and
his successors natural legates of the see of Rome
in the island of Sicily; investing them with all the
rights, privileges, and authorities, belonging to that
dignity, which was both spiritual and temporal. This
is the famous privilege which is called the mon-
archy of Sicily ; that is to say, the privilege annexed
to that monarchy ; a privilege which the popes have
ever since been for annulling, but which the kings
of Sicily have always maintained. If this preroga-
tive is incompatible with the Christian hierarchy, it
is evident that Pope Urban had not the power of
bestowing it; but if it is only a matter of church
discipline not repugnant to religion, it is as evident
that every kingdom has a right to claim the same
privilege to itself. This privilege is at the bottom
only the right which Constantine, and all the em-
perors had, of presiding over every part of the
police of their own dominions; and yet in all the
Catholic countries of Europe, there was found but
one Norman gentleman who had power and ad-
dress enough to procure himself this prerogative,
and at the very gates of Rome.
In 1130 the son of this count Roger succeeded to
the whole patrimony of the Norman family, and was
crowned and consecrated king of Sicily and Apulia.
Naples, which was at that time only a small city, and
did not then belong to him, could not give a name
Sicily. 267
to the kingdom. This city had always preserved
itself in the form of a republic, under a duke, who
held in fee of the emperors of Constantinople, and
who had found means, by well-timed presents, to
preserve his small state from the ambition of this
conquering family.
This first king of Sicily, Roger did homage for
his kingdom to the see of Rome. There were at that
time two popes ; one called Anacletus, the son of a
Jew named Leo, and the same whom St. Bernard
calls "Judaicam sobolem" (of Jewish race): the
other called Innocent II. Roger acknowledged
Anacletus, because the emperor Lotharius II. had
acknowledged Innocent ; and it was this Anacletus
to whom he paid his empty homage.
The emperor looked upon the Norman conquerors
as no other than usurpers; accordingly St. Ber-
nard, who was concerned in all the disputes between
the popes and the kings, wrote both against Roger,
and this son of a Jew, who had got himself elected
pope by dint of money. " One," says he, " has
usurped the chair of St. Peter, and the other the
government of Sicily : it belongs to Caesar to punish
Roger supported Anacletus, who was acknowl-
edged in Rome. Lotharius laid hold on this oppor-
tunity to strip the Normans of a part of their con-
quests. He puts himself at the head of an army, and
taking Pope Innocent with him, directs his march
towards Apulia. It is plain that the Normans had
268 Ancient and Modern History.
good reasons for shaking off their dependence on the
emperors, and placing a barrier betwixt them ; for
scarcely was Roger made king when he found him-
self on the point of losing everything. He was
besieging Naples when the emperor marched against
him. He lost several battles, and almost all his prov-
inces on the continent. Innocent II. pursued him in
person, and with his excommunications. St. Ber-
nard, who, in 1137, accompanied the emperor and
the pope, in vain labored to bring about an accommo-
dation. Roger everywhere beaten, retires into Sic-
ily; the emperor dies, and everything is changed;
Roger and his son recover their provinces. Pope
Innocent II. at length acknowledged in Rome, enters
into a league with the princes to whom Lotharius
had given the provinces he had taken from Roger,
and with an implacable enmity in his heart to that
monarch ; like Leo IX., he puts himself at the head of
an army, and like him is defeated and taken pris-
oner. What was he to do in this situation ! He did
like the rest of his predecessors ; he granted absolu-
tions and investitures, and applied for protection
against the empire, to that very race of Normans
against whom he had before called in the assistance
of the empire.
In a short time after King Roger subdued Naples
and the rest of the territories from Gaeta to Brin-
disi, which were wanting to make his kingdom com-
plete, and formed the monarchy such as it now
exists. Naples became the capital of his kingdom,
Conquest of England. 269
and the arts began to revive a little in these beautiful
Having now seen in what manners a few gentle-
men of Coutances, in Normandy, founded the king-
dom of Naples and Sicily, we must next see how a
duke of Normandy and peer of France conquered
England. Astonishing are the number of invasions
and emigrations which lasted from the fourth cen-
tury to the beginning of the fourteenth, and which
ended with the Crusades ! All the nations of Europe
were intermixed, and there was hardly one which
had not had its usurpers.
WHILE the children of Tancred of Hauteville
founded kingdoms at such a distance from their
native land, the dukes acquired one, which became
more considerable than that of the two Sicilies.
Britain, in spite of the native bravery of her people,
has been always destined to be governed by foreign-
ers. After the death of Alfred, which happened in
900, England sank again into barbarism and
anarchy. The ancient Anglo-Saxons, its first con-
querors, and the Danes, its new usurpers, were
always disputing the possession, and fresh Danish
pirates frequently came in also, to partake of the
270 Ancient and Modern History.
spoils of that unhappy island. These pirates con-
tinued so formidable, and the English so weak, that
in the year 1000, the latter were obliged to pur-
chase their quiet of them for forty-eight thousand
pounds sterling; and to raise this sum a tax was
imposed, which lasted for a long time in England,
as indeed most other taxes do, which generally con-
tinue to be levied long after the occasion which gave
rise to them is ceased. This humbling tribute was
called Danegelt, or Danish money.
Canute, king of Denmark, surnamed the Great,
only by performing great acts of cruelty, reduced
both Denmark and England under his subjection
in 1017. The native English were then treated like
slaves ; insomuch that the historians of those times
acknowledge that when an Englishman met a Dane
he was obliged to stop till the latter had passed by.
The race of Canute failing in 1041, the states of
the kingdom resuming their liberty, conferred the
crown on Edward, a descendant from the ancient
Anglo-Saxon kings, who was called the saint and the
confessor. One of the great faults, or great mis-
fortunes of this king, was his having no children
by his wife Edith, daughter to one of the most
powerful noblemen of his kingdom. He hated his
wife, as well as his own mother, and for reasons
of state had them both removed from court. How-
ever, the barrenness of his marriage bed proved the
occasion of his canonization; for it was pretended
that he had made a vow of chastity; a rash vow
Conquest of England. 271
surely for a married man, and highly absurd in a
king, who stood in need of an heir to his domin-
ions. But by this vow, real or pretended, he forged
new chains for his wretched country.
The custom and manners of those times appear
to have been absolutely different from ours. William,
duke of Normandy, who conquered England, was
so far from having any right to that kingdom that
he had not even any to Normandy, if birthright had
taken place; for his father, Robert, who was never
married, had him by the daughter of a skinner of
Falaise, whom history calls " Harlot," a word which
then signified, and still continues to signify in Eng-
lish, a common woman, a prostitute. This bastard,
who was acknowledged in his father's lifetime his
lawful heir, maintained himself by his dexterity and
valor, in the possession of his duchy, against all who
attempted to dispute it with him, and reigned peace-
ably in Normandy, and Brittany did him homage.
On the deal h of Edward the Confessor, he had made
pretensions to the kingdom of England. There was
no established right of succession at that time in any
one state in Europe. The crown of Germany was
elective, that of Spain divided between the Christians
and Moors; Lombardy was every day changing
masters ; the race of Charlemagne, driven from the
throne of France, was an example of what force can
do against the right of blood. Edward the Con-
fessor did not wear the crown by right of inher
itance. Harold, who succeeded him, was not of his
272 Ancient and Modern History.
family, but came to the throne by the most incontest-
able of all rights, the suffrages of the people. The
bastard William could plead neither the right of
election, nor that of inheritance, nor even any party
in his favor in England. He pretended that in a
former voyage he had made to this island, King
Edward had made a will in his favor, which, how-
ever, no one had ever seen. He pretended, moreover,
that he had formerly delivered Harold from prison,
who had in return yielded up to him his right to the
crown of England. These weak reasons he sup-
ported by a powerful army.
The Norman barons, assembled in form of a diet,
refused to furnish their duke with money towards
carrying on this expedition, alleging that if he should
not succeed Normandy would be impoverished, and
that if he did it would become only a province to
England: nevertheless, there were several Norman
lords who risked their fortunes with their duke.
One single nobleman, named Fitzothbern or Fitz-
osborn, equipped forty vessels at his own expense.
The count of Flanders, father-in-law to the duke,
assisted him with a sum of money, and the pope
himself engaged in his interest, and excommunicated
all those who opposed his designs. At length he set
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