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I was born December 4th, 1989 in New York City. At a young age, I would stand back and watch the world for what it really was. My mind would flood with thoughts and questions about why we were so blind, yet no one had the answers I needed. No one could explain to me why we were "lost" together as a world, yet acted as if we knew the way. No one could explain to me why no one had an explanation for our existence, yet still choose to claim superiority over another. So I turned to writing. It became my drug. Writing became my way of escaping from this reality into a world that only I can see. It's a way that I can leak the words from my pen to give readers a glimpse of the world that brings me comfort. My mind knows no limits, and my eyes see no boundaries; so my writing is limitless, taking on whatever life my pen can handle. Through my words, I can show you what I see. But will you take the chance to enter my world.
Our Interview with Taj Thompson!
Bio provided by author's site
It was our pleasure to get a chance to interview Taj. He is a brilliant young man with a mind that knows no boundaries. His writings are thought provoking and very introspective. Please sit back and give a very warm welcome to Taj!
1. What makes for a good hook in your stories? Where does your inspiration come from?
My inspiration for my stories are simply derived from my will to have my voice be heard. I feel that many conform to the life society tells them is right; yet I stand back and decide for myself. Through my writing I try to express these views of true freedom by allowing the reader to take a walk in my world.
2. Are you an organized writer? Do you do things like take notes and make lists of characters? Or do you free write and work it out as you go?
Before I write anything, I play the story in my mind like a movie. I may turn on my Ipod and have music go along with the story in my mind as I would like it to play out on screen. After the story is complete and I feel as if I was entertained enough and mesmerized, then I begin to transfer that story from my mind to paper. Each character has a face and a background before my pen reaches that paper.
3. What is your normal writing day like? Do you write when you are inspired or do you have a schedule?
I only write when I'm inspired. I feel as if having a schedule is the equivalent of forcing yourself to write and at least for me, it wouldn't be as fluid and natural. I like to carry on with my day and have something inspire me to play the story in my mind and then find any means I can to write it out.
4. Who is your favorite author and how did they inspire you to write?
I grew up loving Stephen King. His writing is dark and mesmerizing, which I've always admired. To say I wanted to emulate his writing would be disrespectful because it is so unique and original. From him, I learned to embrace the uniqueness that we all have as writers, always staying true to your signature form.
5. It's easy to see that you have a passion for writing but is there any part of it you don't like?
I love writing in all aspects, but the one thing that does bother me is the fact that through my writing, you cannot hear the music I let sooth my ears as the story unfolds. Many times, in movies, the background music plays to amp the emotion but for writing you don't have that music to supplement the power. So, I rely heavily on visuals instead, hoping the reader can form their own images and music to go along with my words.
6. Do you make time to read and if you do what are you reading right now?
I do make time to read in my busy life. Not as much as I used to, but enough to keep me motivated. Right now, I am reading City of Bones, by Cassandra Clare. Although I try to stray from focusing on dialogue in my writing, I love reading books that rely heavily on dialogue.
7. How did you get started in writing dark fantasy? Is there very much of your personal life experience in the writing?
Growing up, I was always that kid who didn't believe their parents words when they spoke about fairy tales. I wasn't suspicious of their words, because I knew it couldn't be true. As a child, life just didn't make sense because I would see adults say one thing, then do another. As time went on, I began to see more unhappiness until I reached the verdict that there may never truly be a happy ending. In this life, we are not guaranteed food, nor water, but we are guaranteed death. Life is the journey toward our end and yet, so many waste it judging others as they walk their own path, focusing on judgment and failing to live life the way they dreamed. So, I write about the darkness I see in the world in a manner that makes the darkness seem comforting at times.
8. Your books have been published with Amazon.com and Kindle Direct Publishing, Does this mean you see the publishing industry headed this way?
To be honest, I see the whole world shifting vastly when it comes to technology. Communication has drastically changed and all the things society has once deemed as "normal" are shifting as well. Individuals are more likely to be spend a lot of time on their computers carrying on with their daily task and it's here they might find it easier to read as well. Technology such as the Kindle proves this societal shift as consumers can now download whatever book they would like without even having to leave their home.
9. Do you have any online sites where others can read more of your writings?
I don't right now, although I do have some poetry lingering online from years prior. I honestly only thought about making an online site if I had enough request for my work. I do have many writings stored away for my eyes only. But that doesn't mean they can't also be for the eyes of the world.
10. Do you have any more stories in the works? What kinds of stories do you plan to write next?
I plan on finishing the trilogy of Revelations. The story is already written in my mind and waiting to see the white of paper. The second book will be called Revelations: The Forbidden Wish. In the first book, I focused more on the protagonists, Leos', inner conflict with finding his identity between two separate worlds. He had no memory and felt as if the Earth instantly gave him an identity he couldn't relate to, "the black man." Yet, in the other world of the extra terrestrials, they saw no race but they still viewed Leo as a threat because his existence defied their laws. In the second book, The Forbidden Wish, the theme I focus on is "how far will you go to prove you love someone". In part two, we will see the magnificent art of individuals breaking their character in the name of love. This I feel is something we see everyday. Many people "change" drastically in the name of love, sometimes realizing it and sometimes not. It could be the love of a friend, the love of family,the love of a lover and even a secret love. This will play out with seeing how far the characters will go in the name of love, as the beautiful tragedies that follow unfold.
11. Who would be your first choice to play the boy who lost his voice in your book "The Last Song"? Last song dealt with a young child being killed by the mother whom he loved dearly. He understood her actions because he knew she did it out of love, even though she was clinically insane. The first person that comes to mind due to age is probably Will Smith's younger son that played the recent Karate Kid. He seems young enough to fit the role, although any young boy with inspiration could take on the role.
12. If you could meet anyone from any time who would it be and what would be your first question?
If I could meet anyone from anytime, I honestly wouldn't go very far back. I really want to meet Oprah and find out what truly motivates her to do all the good that she does. I always say to myself that if I was given an unlimited amount of money, I would without hesitation give back to the world. My dream is to one day build an academy for orphans where they can live their lives and receive an education at the same time. Many of us complain when our days go to sour, failing to grasp that realism that we understand what a good day is. A lot of orphans don't have that luxury, experiencing each day as "bad", virtually cause they have no choice. So my dream is to one day give those children that "good day" that they deserve. I feel as if Oprah clarifies many times as to why she does what she does, but I want to meet her so I can see it in her eyes for myself. I feel as if the eyes speak a language that the mouth could never translate. I want to look her in the eyes and understand the light she has found in the darkness of her life. I want to truly understand that "the good" actually exist in this world, and the good actions are not for show but for honor.


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The first thing that we should instead know about this topic is also the most important; what is freelancing? Effectively, according to Wikipedia, we learn that your freelancer is someone who's self-employed and is not invested in a particular employer long-term. A formal phrase that means identical is 'independent contractor'. In this post, we shall talk about steps to start an online freelancing profession. You can also visit www.aofreelancers.com, to gather more information about freelance jobs.
First, we must focus on a warning. Even though freelancing is equipped with several benefits, it is not a get-rich-quick scheme where you settle back and suddenly find yourself buried in tons of cash. Freelancing is a career where you have to work extremely hard, especially in the beginning as you establish the reputation. Furthermore, if you have no skill and are unwilling to learn any, then you would save lots of your time by not reading further.
So, what kinds of skills do you need to start a freelance profession? The list is long, but most freelancers entail themselves with writing perform, be it translation, web content writing, content writing, transcription, or perhaps creative writing. But don't worry but if your writing skills are less than polished! There are furthermore other freelancers who offer you software based services, nevertheless other who provide video services.

subset: commoncrawl


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Post-Olympic Pieces
Here's a couple of interesting "Olympic-Aftermath" posts from around the internet, and below is some value-added analysis:
* The Olympic Sponsor – Biggest Winners and Biggest Losers
All Roads Lead to China
Discusses how sponsors like Lenovo and GE may have benefitted from their Olympic sponsorship.
*Yeah! I'm a Llama Again
Silk Road International
Great Olympic-review/overview piece with even better links that are worth consideration. (Such as this harsh piece by TimesOnline (Some of its assertions might be treated with a grain of salt though- and it should be noted that the British Times appears to have an almost pathological dislike for China's regime), and a thoughful piece in the Washington Post.)
* The Great Convergence?
The China Beat
Compares similarities between China and the United States and coverage of the Olympics.
* Making sense of what comes after the Olympics
Michael Pettis at Asia EconoMonitor
Discusses China's still-weak stock-market, declining growth in expansion of tax revenues, and speculates on near-future performance of the Chinese economy.
*Rio Tinto predicts post-games boom
By Rebecca Bream and Chris Flood; Financial Times
The Financial Times reports how Rio Tinto believes commodity prices will rise again, amid a post-Olympics construction boom as transportation/supply chains are untangled, factories are reopened, and trucks get back onto the streets… This would probably happen starting sometime around mid-September after the Paralympic Games are finished.
Olympic Pollution: Comparisons
If you wanted to compare pollution pre-Olympics, or to compare Beijing's pollution to Olympics' pollution in Athens, or Barcelona, this is an excellent resource.
Wireless Data Roaming Wins Gold During Beijing Olympics
Ever wondered how much information was sent over roaming phones during the Beijing Games? Now you can become enlightened. "[A] surge in wireless data roaming traffic exceeding 40 percent over the same period of days the month before. This increase in roaming traffic resulted in more than 332 GB of data being exchanged between 225 mobile operators in 106 different countries on the Aicent network. This increase in wireless data roaming is the equivalent of the content in books stored on nearly two miles of shelves."
Conclusion… What Does This Mean?
Links without analysis are only of marginal use, so here's some value-added content.
* Rio Tinto is probably right to believe demand in China for metals and resources will continue, despite a weak international economy. And if other countries' demand for resources drops, China has the cash to step in and bargain-shop.
* A weaker international economy will harm China's export-market, but the PRC appears willing to focus policy on expanding economic growth. Brad Setser of the CFR (Council on Foreign Relations) persuasively argues that China's exports have not yet been significantly harmed by the global slowdown.
It appears RMB appreciation will slow if the Chinese continue to prop up their exporters. Michael Pettis, who specializes on Chinese Financial Markets and teaches at Beida in Beijing, believes that China might also sustain high inflation in order to support its exporters.
It is surprising that exporters are still maintaining at least a limited amount of strength, considering that the new Labor Law requires employers to pay workers more and treat them better, and considering that new tax provisions do away with some benefits for foreign companies based in China. A fuller examination of China's economic future and the consequences of its economic policies definitely merits more in-depth future analysis that will certainly take a good deal of time to properly treat.
* And The China Beat reminds us that in many ways, China and the United States have similarities… things that often go unnoticed when the "China Threat Theory" is promulgated, or China's collectivist culture is over-stressed, or when commentators focus on China's "communism."
* And, to close, I welcome your thoughts on where China's economy is going post-Olympics or if the Olympics really changed anything about China in the long run. (Bonus Article: "Orville Schell discusses the future of Chinese nationalism and Olympic changes. (Written Before the Games)") Thanks for reading.
Olympic Pollution- Comparisons
Air quality in Beijing during the Olympics, according to the BBC, was actually quite clean. "Beijing met the strictest WHO standard for particulate matter in six out of the first 11 days of the Games." Below, I examine just how good Beijing's air quality was compared to air quality in previous games' cities.
Pollution during the Beijing Olympics was rated on average 62 AQI for July 25 through August 24. Pollution was a 43 from the 18th through the 24th of August, according to the WSJ Beijing Air Quality Widget. (AQI is a composite number that includes measurements of ground-based ozone, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and particulate matter.) An AQI score of 43 would be considered green or safe in the United States, and yellow or fair in Canada.
To better understand the improvements Beijing made in its air quality, I present numbers from Runner's Magazine's September 2008 issue (page 96) which presented a comparative study of Olympic host cities' pollution rates. The study measured average yearly concentrations of particulate matter (PM), sulfur dioxide (SD), and nitrogen dioxide (ND).
Note: Numbers below for "Beijing 2008" are pre-Olympics.
Particulate Matter
Montreal (1976)… 19
Barcelona (1992)… 35
Athens (2004)… 43
Beijing (2008)… 89
Beijing (DURING OLYMPICS)… 52-62
Safe Levels… 15-35
2004 EU Levels… 30
WHO Air Quality Target… 50
Sulfur Dioxide
Montreal (1976)… 10
Barcelona (1992)… 11
Athens (2004)… 34
Beijing (2008)… 90
Beijing (DURING OLYMPICS)… 10-14
Safe Levels… 20 (WHO Guidelines. p.414)
Nitrogen Dioxide
Montreal (1976)… 42
Barcelona (1992)… 43
Athens (2004)… 64
Beijing (2008)… 122
Beijing (DURING OLYMPICS)… 24-32
Safe Levels… 40
2004 EU Levels… Over 40
(numbers in micrograms per cubic meter)
Beijing appeared to do a good job on reducing Particulate Matter pollution. Beijing lowered its average PM10 pollution by nearly 40 points on average. However, Beijing still suffered more floating particulates than were present in previous Olympic host cities. On average, Beijing was over the "safe" limit by nearly 30 points.
Beijing's sulfur dioxide content, however, was notably lower than that of Athens in 2004 which put sulfur dioxide pollution within safe levels. Still, the amount was higher than SO2 content in other previous Olympic host cities.
Perhaps the best pollution prevention news is that nitrogen dioxide pollution was down by 1/4th, and was much lower than NO2 pollution in previous Games-holding cities.
China effectively confronted pollution in Beijing, at least in the short term. As September arrives and factories and construction begin turning on and cars return to the road, Beijing's usual smog will return. But with luck, Beijingers now enjoying clear skies might be motivated to adopt and promote further environmental measures.
For now though, let us celebrate Beijing's clear skies and Olympic environmental-stopgap success.
In English, here are district by district reports of air quality from the Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau for August 23:
|Dongsi Station in Dongcheng District
|Guanyuan Station in Xicheng District
|Tiantan Station in Chongwen District
|Wan Shou Station in Xuanwu District
|Olympic Sports Center Stadium in Chaoyang District
|Agriculture Exhibition Center Station in Chaoyang District
|Wanliu Station in Haidian District
|North Developping Area Station in Haidian District
|Botanical Garden Station in Haidian District
|Fengtai Town Station in Fengtai District
|Yungang Station in Fengtai District
|Gu Cheng Station in Shi Jingshan District
|Station in Yizhuang Developping Area
|Longquan Town Station in Men Tougou District
|Liangxiang Town Station in Fangshan District
|Tongzhou Town Station in Tongzhou District
|Renhe Town station in Shunyi District
|Dingling Station in Changping District
|Changping Town Station in Changping District
|Yellow village Station in Daxing District
|Yufa Station in Daxing District
|Pinggu Town Station in Pinggu District
|Huairou Town Station in Huairou District
|Miyun Town Station in Miyun County
|Miyun Reservoir Station
|Yanqing Town Station in Yanqing District
|Ba Daling Station in Yanqing County
Particulate Matter Chart for Beijing: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7498198.stm
Protesters and the Olympics (Guest)
by: Danny J. (Guest Contributor)
There is one group who the Western media has generally not quite given much face-time, a group who could potentially cause even more embarrassment to Beijing than the Tibet and Darfur protesters. This group is China's general population of 'petitioners.'
Beijing is said to have been home to 10,000 petitioners before the Olympics. Many of these people came to Beijing to petition because they believe they have 'been denied justice in their home provinces.' These people could expose untold numbers of stories of local corruption, and at least some of the stories would be true. Now, groups allege there has been a large crackdown that has swept petitioners, along with other undesirables such as 'beggars and pickpockets' out of the city. Also, to discourage undesirables (the poor, migrants, Uighurs, 等等) from residing in Beijing, the government 'closed down thousands of cheap hotels and basement apartments where rooms could be rented for less than $1 a day' and 'demolished housing in entire neighborhoods where petitioners have lived.'
Anyone who has lived in Beijing is probably familiar with this sort of tactic, the clearing off the street of beggars before a big event – be it a Party Congress, or the Africa-China meeting. This time, however, the clearing is being done with an 'unprecedented intensity.'
One common petitioner spot known as Kaiyang Bridge had somewhere around 10,000 petitioners before the crackdown. Now it only holds a few hundred. Such petitioners wish to have their problems heard, hopefully in front of a television camera. Gauging Beijing's reaction so far, it is a bit unlikely that their problems will be heard before they are detained.
High profile protests have already begun. Pro-T^&(t activists unfurled some huge banners near the stadium, 'others managed to screen a pro-T^&(t video, a U.S. swimmer unveiled an anti-fur advertisement and three U.S. Christian activists were able to enter T*(ananmen Square to protest briefly.' No one was arrested, although it appears that all save the anti-fur swimmer were deported on the 9th, but all were quickly quieted and removed from their protest sites.
For something to look forward to, there are the 'more than 40 athletes' who signed an 'open letter to china's government to respect human rights and freedom of religion.' Protests have also started and have been ongoing, to some extent, in many parts of the world.
What all this will lead to in the aftermath of both protests and the Olympic games, and whether or not the Chinese government can respond appropriately to unrest and dissent, might very well shape future Chinese domestic and foreign policy.
(ed: in the August 19, 2008 WSJ, page A10- Shai Oster noted in "China is Pitching a Protester Shutout" that 77 applications for protests from 149 people have been filed. 74 were withdrawn "because their problems 'were [allegedly] properly addressed by relevant authorities…' No protests have been approved. This could lead to simmering discontent among the people as Leslie Hook describes on page A15 in "The Chinese Want Property Rights Too." In that article, Hook describes several petitioners' struggles.)
Specifically of note (and for deeper analysis): Willy Lam of the Jamestown Foundation wrote a good article on the "Coming crackdown" post-Olympics games.
This piece does not necessarily reflect the views of chinacomment. However, it is interesting, so I hope you will find it enjoyable. Once again, I thank Danny very much for his contribution.
(Note: Chinacomment is currently on vacation and without constant access to computer until the beginning of September; however, updates will continue at the pace of 1-3 a week since Chinacomment does have a sizable backlog of relevant material to post.)
Beijingers Love Their Games? (Guest)
by: Danny J. (Guest Contributor)
In a survey of Chinese natives, 93% believed that 'the Olympics will help China's image around the globe' and 96% said that the games 'will be successful.'
These numbers, while enlightening on exposing Chinese national thought, don't hit on one key question: How are Chinese, and Beijingers in particular, satisfied with the preparations for the games and the new security regulations?
This quote seems to sum up at least some Beijingers' feelings: 'For years we couldn't wait for the Olympics to start. Now we can't wait for them to be over.' To be fair, many are still excited for the event, they are just a bit tired of all the extra measures.
The quoted person presumably wants the Olympics to be over so everything can be 'normal' again, without all the new rules and restrictions imposed on Beijing to clean it up – environmentally, legally, and even in terms of fashion (Shirts and ties for taxi drivers) . (ed: One interesting dramatized story about local discontent with the Olympic games can be found in this "sci-fi" tale from China Digital Times, reposting from the SCI-FI Great Wall blog. The story discusses how poor local Beijingers are pushed aside in the lead-up to the Olympics, all for the sake of honored foreign guests.)
Rules have been drawn up to guard against fashion no-no's. Here's the abridged version: 'white socks worn with black shoes are out, leather skirts are frowned upon, bright nail varnish is a no and woe betide anyone whose colours clash.' What will actually happen to someone who violates these new guidelines, let alone what these rules will do to that Chinese 农民(nongmin) summertime tradition of rolling up shirts to mid-chest height, is unclear.
Maybe it's not just the fashion police who are bothering Beijingers. It could be the new Taxi protocol requiring identity checks at random police stops. Or it could be that a good number of clubs 'have been forced to go dark,' and the ones that are still open have a mandated 2 a.m. closing time. Then, in a move to clean up pollution, most barbecue or 串儿 restaurants/stalls have been closed.
Checkpoints on the outskirts of the city have helped decrease the number of vegetables in Beijing, and partially due to that and inflation, foodstuff prices have increased by around '20 percent.' Compounded together, it's easy to understand a Beijinger's frustration.
There is some good news: Water will not be in short supply in Beijing. It has been diverted from Hebei, to ensure that the Olympians get enough water. Hebei, already a bit short of water, might have some problems. On top of sufficient water, rules have been put in place to ensure cabbies 'go easy on their garlic consumption.'
One more humorous measure involved 'a series of measures banning cigarettes in schools, railway stations, office buildings and other public places.' Wen Jiabao 'has declared that the Olympics will be smoke free.' 100,000 inspectors are on the lookout to ticket smokers, but the ticket is a mere $1.40, which among the middle classes is unlikely to curb much smoking. To emphasize this, a general reaction to the rare non-smoking sign: "If I point to the no-smoking sign, the passenger will just laugh and keep smoking."
Chinese may love their Olympic games, but with over 350 million Chinese smokers, 1/3rd of the world's smoking population, many Chinese also love their cigarettes and their normal lives.
This piece does not necessarily reflect the views of chinacomment. However, it is interesting, so I hope you will find it enjoyable. Once again, I thank Danny very much for his contribution.
(Note: Chinacomment is currently on vacation and without constant access to computer until the beginning of September; however, updates will continue at the pace of 1-3 a week since Chinacomment does have a sizable backlog of relevant material to post.)
Beijing Smog
Every winter, Beijing skies darken with pollution's gray fog. Exercising becomes dangerous to the health since too much bad air is drawn in and and not enough good. Soot merges with Beijing's snowfalls, solidifying the snow and making these dense packed black and white masses last.
Beijing's foul air contrasts greatly to air quality elsewhere. Good air, which rates a 50 on the AQI (air quality index) means air absent of "ground-level ozone, particle pollution, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide," according to airnow.gov. When air rates over 150, it is considered unhealthy and a red pollution day is declared. Several American cities experience red, or purple (201-300 AQI values) pollution days a few times per year. Beijing's index, by contrast, suffers over 110 days each year in excess of AQI 100. Several days in December 2007, air quality hit 500- meriting a hazardous maroon rating (US air quality scale).
In Winter 2006 and 2007, the pollution index also hit 500. On those days, we could not even see buildings less than a block away. Bleakness oozed. Chinese wore white face masks.
"Beijing lung", our endearing term for hacking up black spittle, became a common sight and ailment among not just foreigners, but also among locals. People felt dizzy, lethargic, and disoriented. Food took on a slightly tinny tinge, and eyes watered.
Is Beijing's polluted clime livable- yes. As bad as my description sounds, thousands of Beijingers more or less live, and work- hanging 30 stories off construction beams, or carting bales of cardboard and crushed plastic on precariously balanced bikes. According to a New York Times article by Aaron Kuo-Deemer, hospital visits and deaths do rise significantly during high pollution days. But it is amazing how much pollution the human body can withstand. Even though just walking on a 500 level pollution day feels like smoking several cigarettes, one recalls some heavy smokers live long lives. In fact, Jeanne Calment, the world's oldest lady smoked until she was nearly 117. Other smokers at least live into their sixties.
But living a relatively healthy life among increasing pollution is not sustainable. Pollution cuts into productivity as asthma cases increase and lung diseases strike, creating pressure on China's health care system. Last year cancer accounted for nearly 20 percent of Chinese deaths, according to China Daily. Estimates state "70 percent of China's 2 million annual deaths attributable to the disease were pollution-related," according to China's State Environmental Protection Administration; also "a World Bank report said about 750,000 Chinese die earlier due to air pollution every year."
The situation, despite government claims to the contrary, may be worsening. Although Beijing can celebrate an alleged 244 blue sky days where the pollution index remained below 100, part of the reason for the achievement attributes not to greater environmental sustainability, but to movement of monitoring stations to new locations- farther away from highway intersections.
Cleaning up sulfur-spewing factories and particulate-emitting coal plants, Beijing has progressed in reducing airborne particulate matter. However, with over a thousand cars added daily to Beijing's streets, automotive pollutants are merely replacing industrial pollutants. Although Beijing has made great strides in improving car and bus emission standards and although it has increased mass transportation, opening two subway lines, and a light rail in 2007 and 2008, Beijing's rapid growth and unfortunate location negate much of its environmental gains. Smog originating from northern provinces' factories blow into Beijing's dry mountain-surrounded plateau and is trapped. The dust only dissipates with a rain or strong wind. Otherwise, bleakness looms.
Despite recent environmental advances- the preponderance of cars, influx of people and high energy demands will contribute to increased pollution. Beijing will grow and the government will struggle to limit pollution. People will endure, but as the city grows, so too will the dark clouds looming above.
(This article was originally written in March 2008 )
Maslow's Hierarchy
1.) "Physiological Needs
These are biological needs…They are the strongest needs"
To sustain the country in the late 1950s, collectivization programs were instituted, farms were consolidated, and backyard furnaces smelted steel. Then, the Great Leap Forward bust, and a famine began that would cost the lives of millions. China recovered, eventually, but it embarked upon increasingly insular policies. (PBS) In Wild Swans, Jung Chan discusses the struggle for survival.
From 1966-1976, China suffered the Great Cultural Revolution, when students were sent into the countryside to labor alongside peasants, and intelligensia were humiliated (some were murdered). Even cadres suffered, but former "landlord-class", "entrepreneurs", and professionals like doctors, lawyers, and teachers suffered the most. To increase crop yields and to raise the Socialist spirit, people were forced into collectivized farms.
The Mao Jacket (Photo) became a popular form of clothing, paens to the great Chairman were sung, and the loyalty dance was danced. Ritual was embraced, and individuality was considered putting the self above the collective, thereby damaging productivity (Xing Lu's book has more on the Cultural Revolution).
The Cultural Revolution might be argued to have domestically fulfilled security needs to ensure Mao's superiority more than physiological needs. Internationally, however, it was most definitely an example of physiological needs. Because the regime was so concerned about internally maintaining order, China recalled ambassadors from abroad (Xiaohong Liu's excellent book describes this) and basically walled itself off from the outside world, helping justify the phrase, the "bamboo curtain." Instead of reaching out, China criticised Moscow and embarked on an extended period of isolation.
In essence, the 1960s saw China concerned with itself, and its survival as a revolutionary Communist state.
When all physiological needs are satisfied and are no longer controlling thoughts and behaviors, the needs for security can become active. "
Post 1976, a new set of regimented order emerged. Out of the crumbling of the collective farms and state-owned enterprises during the 1980s-1990s, came a brief "Beijing Spring" and opening 改革开放 under the leadership of liberals such as Hu Yaobang, and Zhao Ziyang. This opening came to an end in 1989.
Arguably, need for security is still paramount even today, as is evident when Beijing cracks down on Tib#*#*tan protests, and internet censors monitor communications. (James Fallows of the Atlantic has a really interesting article on censorship and concepts of security.)
In terms of international security; in 1979 Chinese troops crossed the border to punitively punish Vietnam for becoming involved in the unrest in Cambodia. After seizing a few objectives, the Chinese withdrew. Also of note is the 1995-1996 Taiwan Straits crisis.
3.) "Needs of Love, Affection and Belongingness
When the needs for safety and for physiological well-being are satisfied, the next class of needs for love, affection and belongingness can emerge. Maslow states that people seek to overcome feelings of loneliness and alienation. This involves both giving and receiving love, affection and the sense of belonging. "
Look at the cute Olympic monsters, the fuwa, and consider China's "Panda Diplomacy," then consider how China coveted the Olympics because having them will demonstrate that China is a great country. The CS Monitor and other journalistic outlets have often repeated; "The Chinese government is treating the Games as a symbolic end to 150 years of humiliation by outside powers and a confirmation of its status as a global power to be reckoned with." As a student said in response to Beijing's reception of the Olympics; "I feel our motherland is already a great power in the East. Our nation has stood up."
Nowadays, China wants the respect of its neighbors. China emerged from the alienation of the 60s,70s, and post-1989. In 2001 it joined the WTO- acting as though it belongs in the company of great nations (Why China Wants to Join the WTO).
Thus, China is more susceptible to public opinion. In response to intense lobbying over the Darfur issue in Sudan, China sent more peacekeepers and has shown a greater willingness to cooperate with international bodies.
4.) "Needs for Esteem
When the first three classes of needs are satisfied, the needs for esteem can become dominant. These involve needs for both self-esteem and for the esteem a person gets from others… When these needs are satisfied, the person feels self-confident and valuable as a person in the world. When these needs are frustrated, the person feels inferior, weak, helpless and worthless. "
China needs to be respected by others. Thus, "Chinese rage has focused on the alleged "anti-China" bias of the Western press," according to the Economist. When foreign media outlets misrepresented pictures of Nepalese mistreating Ti#$$$$ans as Chinese mistreating Ti%%%%etans, Chinese were outraged. Also, when Chinese saw Western press as feeling sorry for T^^^b#t, they demonstrate the Ti&&&etans in France horribly mistreated one disabled Olympic torch bearer.
Peter Hays Gries discusses China's new assertive nationalism in detail in his book: China's New Nationalism.
By winning in the Olympics and putting on a good show, China will feel validated and have its esteem needs satisfied.
Also, China has established Confucius Insitiutes around the world to spread Chinese language and culture.
5.) "Needs for Self-Actualization
When all of the foregoing needs are satisfied, then and only then are the needs for self-actualization activated. Maslow describes self-actualization as a person's need to be and do that which the person was "born to do.""
China has yet to reach this stage. When it does, it might explode onto the international scene, justifying territorial rights in claiming Taiwan, and settling oceanic disputes. At the self-actualization stage, China's pursuit of these rights will be similar to its pursuit of rights during the security stage, but more sophisticated. China might press its demands through use of diplomatic isolation, economic pressures, or show of military force (not necessarily invasion). When China has become self-actualized, it will be confident in its strengths, capabilities and goals as a nation. Chinese military plans currently suppose the PRC will be a regional power by 2020.
Self-actualization comprises more than mere territorial claims. After China gains confidence to act on the world stage, it might try to remake the world in its image, much as the United States, the USSR, and Great Britain have done in past ages.
China will seek to set up its own international groupings and economic bodies. China already supports ASEAN and may be able to assume a leadership role in this USA-excluding trade body. The US' group, a more expansive APEC, is confronting some problems due to its ambitious nature, and will confront more in coming years given America's Democrats' distaste for free trade.
When and if China will arrive at the highest level of Maslow's hierarchy is debatable. Much can happen that might hinder China's full development, from socioeconomic unrest, to internal splittism, to a slowing of the economy. Any of those items might cause China to turn in on itself and become less a leader and more preoccupied with solipsistic concerns.
(Note: Minor edits enacted on July 15th)
Isn't That Odd? : Segways & Flamethrowers
Here's an amusing article describing Chinese preparing for anti-terrorism drills.
Xinhua's photo gallery is here: Although the Segway use can be justified (sort of- though they would seem to be pretty difficult to balance under stress conditions), a question arises looking at Xinhua's photos, why is a flamethrower necessary for anti-terrorism drills at the Olympics?
In recent years, China installed fire extinguishers in Tiananmen to prevent people being lit on fire, after certain high-profile self-immolation protests in 2001.
One wonders how much danger the Beijing security details are expecting to handle– and with what degree of deadly force. I spoke with an Olympic volunteer and was told they were very concerned, as all people at all Olympics are, about incidents at entrances to Olympic venues.
Another especial reason for Beijing's security worries; As recently as May 2008 an unexplained explosion that may have been intentional, went off on a Shanghai bus. Xinhua didn't initially attribute the explosion to terror, but TIME Magazine and people on the ground have suspicions. At minimum, following the explosion, Shanghai instituted new regulations about carrying certain materials on buses and increased anti-terror patrols, which leads one to believe that there may be some reason for these heightened concerns.
With luck, nothing untoward will happen in China during the Olympics. For China's sake, if something does happen, hopefully the police/military response is proportional and appropriate and that the coverage of said problem is transparent.
One thing that seems quite Odd is China has long believed very strongly that ignoring a problem, even after the problem has become well known, allows the country to save face. By covering-up details, forbidding publication of negative stories, and making everything seem happy, Chinese officials seek to win accolades (As I discuss in an earlier article). Thus, they barred reporters from T$$$bet during the recent disturbances, then denied Chinese-instigated abuses (which may or may not have happened- since the West lacked independent reporting all it really has is a "monks said/Beijing says" dichotomy).
Simon Elegant at TIME Magazine thinks the media's coverage style is changing and the Chinese government is more willing to admit to problems rather than covering-them up; but he also points out difficulties suffered by Chinese trying to discuss incidents online.
Oh China, such an odd and amusing, but often frustrating place.
Unequal Wealth, Inflation, and Harmonization
President Hu's policy of a harmonious society, which encourages a move toward slower, more manageable economic growth informed by environmental awareness and greater concern for the poor could be seen as a great leap forward for the Chinese toward a sustainable development model. However, the policy has increasingly resulted in greater degrees of "harmonization" (read about it and see a bizarre chinese video HERE) and suppression of free speech as the society grows increasingly challenged to appeal to ever-diverse interests.
In order to ensure harmoniousness in the face of unique challenges to China's future, its leadership (and HERE for a more indepth look at the leaders' CV's) might be forced to take drastic measures to contain stresses originating from China's rapid, but inequitable economic growth.
China's economic progress continues at a rate of greater than 10% for the past several years, and despite cyclical shocks and a worldwide economic downturn, the Chinese economy appears strong enough to expand. This growth rate and the growth rate of other developing countries brought exuberance to the Shanghai stock market, with stock prices up to an average of 42 percent of valuation over earnings as of July 2007, according to Bill Powell of TIME Magazine. Although the Shanghai stock exchange was down 21% in 2008 by February, and was down nearly 50% in April from its high of 6,124 points reached in October 2007, the Chinese economy is still on pace to grow a bit over 9 percent, according to the World Bank.
With such high and constant growth rates over the past decade (where nearly all years recorded over-ten percent economic growth), inflation is becoming a problem. Even worse, food prices are rising higher than China's overall rate of inflation. As China's inflation grows, wealth disparity and purchasing power parity becomes a greater source of social instability as people lose access to amenities they once could easily purchase.
China's Gini coefficient, used to measure income disparity, is now above .45, according to the 2003 UN Human Development Report, a number above which demonstrates a potentially dangerously unequal society on par with many economically imperiled Latin American states. In comparison, China in 1980 boasted a .33 Gini coefficient (higher numbers indicate greater disparity), according to AsiaTimes. The United States boasts a .47 Gini coefficient, up only eight points from 1970, according to Arthur Brooks in the Wall Street Journal.
Seeking a balanced economic growth rate was a major goal of President Hu Jintao's first term. However, Hu's "Go West" campaign to develop poorer interior regions failed to spread wealth as rapidly as was hoped– much more work needs to be done. This lack of development, and increase in rising foodstuff and transportation prices risks increasing the amount and vehemence of public protests.
Interestingly, (and ignoring for the moment the mass T1b1tan unrest) the reported numbers of protests has actually declined, but China is notorious for ordering newspapers not to report embarrassing stories. Jonathan Watts of Britain's The Guardian discusses China's press crackdown against "negative stories" in detail, and the Hong Kong-based South China Morning Post and other media outlets routinely provide evidence of some Chinese officials'restrictions on individuals, and of the country's greater crackdowns on the free speech of the press. (Staff Reporter. "Free media for Games = media free of bad news, one city says." South China Morning Post. March 20, 2007.); also see an April 30, 2007 report on: "The Olympics countdown – repression of activists overshadows death penalty and media reforms" and of course the newest info on curtailing press freedoms in coverage of the Sichuan earthquake.
As worries about rising inflation and unbalanced economic growth increase, China becomes increasingly secretive, restricting press freedoms. Today makes me recall something that happened at the end of the decade of the 1980s; a time of widening press freedoms, rising inflation, exhuberance of the future and many people gaining wealth while others were left out. This led to protests and marches that were eventually suppressed to international disdain– a suppression that was partially modelled on how President Hu, then Provincial Secretary of T*b*t cracked down on social unrest there.
If economic inequalities lead to greater citizen unrest, it is likely President Hu will look to his past experience and party 'successes" and enact increasingly draconian restrictions, rolling back much of the late-20th Century's increased journalistic openness- with a goal of preserving stability and maintaining a harmonious society.
The question is, though, when will these economic inequalities come to a boiling point? It isn't going to happen before or during the Olympics, but depending on what happens with China fuel subsidies, food prices, and inflation, the protest-barometer could be interesting to watch sometime after February or June 2009.
-An earlier version of this article was written in October 2007


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Here's the thing, guys. I'm reading Norse Mythology right now and I have a couple of non-fiction books I want to read after including The Big Short. So I thought I'd make the rest of May a non-fiction fortnight. But. BUT. IS a book about mythology truly non-fiction?! Or is it fiction? Help me figure it out. Please! I NEEDS TO KNOW. If I can't figure it out, the rest of May will have to be called "Fortnight".
Give May a makeover, guys! Give me your opinion in the comments!


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In order for a Nation to realize her dreams for greatness, there must be committed men and brave but fearless men who have vision and passion and above all must be very intelligent and great thinkers. Unfortunately Nigerian past have lacked most of the critical attributes listed. We have possessed mediocrity in abundance and that is the main reason why Nigeria has remained stagnant in the comity of Nations or what I call arrested development. Lack of basic infrastructures, a comatose education system, and top heavy leadership selected with the only qualification of ethnic bias, pervasive corruption, thieves in high places.
Well, finally there is a glimmer of light and hope at the end of the tunnel for Nigeria, thanks to the likes of Soludo, Iweala, Ribadu and El-Rufai. They have brought hope and a strong believe of the great things than can be achieved other than massive looting of the treasury by our thieving past leaders whose day of judgment is still ahead of them.
Professor Chukwuma Soludo, the Executive Governor of Central Bank of Nigeria first bold move that really propelled him to the forefront of his peers was his decision during the President Obasanjo government was to restructure the Nigerian banking sector which has brought immense respect and succor to the Nigerian economy and earned him great accolades around the world. Because he is a bold and brave man who knows his salt, he stepped outside the boundaries/box where non before him had been and made a great and positive impact even when many so-called experts were telling us that he would fail woefully. Those are the kinds of qualities that sets visionaries apart for their peers.
Without a doubt, Soludo's latest move on the Naira currency (strategic redenomination of the currency from August 2008, so that 100 old naira will become one naira) would certainly achieve the same positive effect that the banking policies he promulgated is doing to the Nigeria economic landscapes today. This development will appreciate Naira affirmatively against dollar and makes its easier for Naira to be convertible. Simultaneously it will encourage investment and increasingly the supply of regulated money into Nigerian banking system. A bulwark to inflation.
Just for the fact that we have a brave and bold thinker who is ready to revolutionize the Nigeria economic landscape is enough to applaud him and let us not be discouraged by the nay Sayers who are already picking holes in his latest attempt/vision and are already predicting doom for his attempt to reinvent the Naira which right now is just as good as the paper it is printed on. That is just another reason why we should all believe that this too will succeed and this too shall pass. My litmus test that it will succeed was when I first read that World Bank had no comment and was numb, made me aware that just the psychological effect of his latest move will be good for Nigeria's economy as it will strengthen the Naira against the Dollar and also bring Nigeria single digit inflation. Even when Bill Gates first unveiled his vision to put a computer in every home, many said he will never succeed because that was too ambitious and bold for a man of his statue at the time, but today not just that almost every home has a computer, many have more than one and maybe that explains why he is one of the richest men on earth today. Even when Ford first rolled out his first car many said that was too bold and that he will never succeed, but he proceeded and look at history today. If he has listened to the nay Sayers then, maybe we will still be riding on horses and buggies instead of cars..
More power to you Soludo, Nigeria's greatest thinker and visionary, an icon on his own strength. I am certain that your vision will revolutionize our economic landscape and your success will shock the nay sayers once again!!! More power to you to dare to step and go where many before you have never been or are too timid to go. History will be kind to you.


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The value of statistical analysis for the material handling industry
Your facility produces massive amounts of data, nonstop. You suspect that clues to increased productivity are hiding inside all those numbers. But where? Business insights can be elusive. According to a recent IBM study, over half of business leaders feel like they need better information to do their job well.
Data everywhere
As a business manager, your job isn't to manipulate the nonstop strings of data, it's to ask the right questions, delegate the analysis, review the findings. Making smart decisions based on analysis often reveals a strategic advantage. So analyzing data is a task for a specialist. But there's not always a specialist in material-handling data analysis in the house. And not all specialists can give you equal insights.
Data + experience = strategic advantage
An experienced systems integrator can help. We routinely help clients mine data for clues to their operation's potential. This knowledge of what is possible isn't only hidden within your data—it comes from experience with decades of projects across a range of industries. From walking around your facility with you, hearing your stories and frustrations. Listening while you talk to your workers. Sometimes increased productivity comes from simple solutions like rearranging your stock, or using off-the-shelf products in innovative ways. Other times, reworking the whole line or adding robotics might be the ticket.
The beauty of combining your vision with good data analysis and broad material handling experience is this: those are exactly the cross hairs that produce innovation. And innovation produces strategic advantages.
The takeaway? Before you start a statistical analysis of your data, make sure your analyst can both interpret the data and offer profitable ideas from the findings.


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Located just 0.6 miles from the Knysna waterfront and with views of the Knysna heads and lagoon, Guinea Fowl Lodge features an outdoor pool, a Mediterranean-style outdoor area, a garden, BBQ facilities, and a terrace with Indian Ocean and mountain views.
The bright and airy rooms are equipped with pastel coloured walls and wooden furnishings. They have a balcony or patio, a seating area with a sofa or easy chairs, satellite TV and tea-and-coffee making facilities. Each room has a private bathroom.
Guinea Fowl Lodge serves breakfast daily. After breakfast, guests can relax poolside or on the outdoor entertainment areas. Indoors, there is a large living room with sofa lounges and a fireplace.
Local activities include swimming, hiking and sightseeing. Knysna forest and local coastal beaches are within 9.3 miles. Featherbed Private Nature Reserve is a 30-minute drive away.
13 Faure Street , 6571 Knysna, South Africa
13 Faure Street Knysna, Western Cape, South Africa


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Fido – Meet Your Roommate: Higher Learning Institutions Sometimes Need to Learn More About Service Animals
When students go off to college or boarding school they sometimes want to bring their pets. If they live on campus it is unlikely they will be permitted to move in with their dog. There is an exception, however, for disabled students who request that their service animal be permitted to live in student housing with them. The same laws that ensure student housing is accessible and barrier-free also cover the needs of these students.
The Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA), the Fair Housing Act, (FHA), and the Rehabilitation Act address issues beyond construction standards and accessibility issues. These laws require reasonable modification of policies and practices to accommodate disabled individuals with service animals.
When most people think of a service animal they think of dogs. But dogs are no longer the only service animals. Indeed, monkeys, pigs, and miniature horses now may serve this role. Furthermore, animals are now trained to provide far more services such as hearing or signaling (alerting deaf individuals to sounds); mobility assistance (pulling wheelchairs; picking up things that are dropped; providing stability for walking); and seizure alert/response (alerting owners to impending epileptic seizures). Further, in addition to "service animals," there are "emotional support animals."
The Department of Justice defines "service animal" as "any guide dog, signal dog, or other animal individually trained to do work or perform tasks for the benefit of an individual with a disability, including, but not limited to, guiding individuals with impaired vision, alerting individuals with impaired hearing to intruders or sounds, providing minimal protection or rescue work, pulling a wheelchair or fetching dropped items."
Accommodating a disabled student is, of course, the right thing to do. It is also the "legal thing" to do, so be sure that your legal counsel has reviewed the applicable laws. Then you will be rightfully contributing to the rich culture that exists on our campuses.
This article appeared in the December 1, 2006 issue of College Planning & Management.


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Latuda is a brand name for lurasidone, a type of medication called an atypical antipsychotic, used to treat mental health problems such as schizophrenia.
This glossary is designed to explain some of the jargon and gobbledygook used by some people when they talk about autism or research..
You may be able to find more information, including links to other parts of this website, by clicking on the title of an item.
If you can't find the word you are looking for, or you know of a word we should include, please email firstname.lastname@example.com
The fact that an intervention is listed in this glossary does not necessarily mean that we agree with its use. Nor does it necessarily mean that there is any scientifically valid or reliable evidence behind it.


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Research Article | Open Access
Adverse Health Effects Associated with Increased Activity at Kīlauea Volcano: A Repeated Population-Based Survey
Eruptive activity at the Kīlauea volcano (Hawai`i, USA) has increased since 2008 resulting in volcanic air pollution (vog) at levels exceeding the national air quality standard for sulfur dioxide. Previous investigations during lower vog levels found adverse cardiorespiratory effects in the residents. The purpose of this 2012 survey was to reassess and compare the impact of the increased volcanic activity on population health. Prevalence of cardiorespiratory signs, symptoms, and diseases was estimated in vog exposed and unexposed communities, and descriptions of perceived health and environmental effects were collected door-to-door. Vog exposure was significantly associated with increased odds of self-reported cough, phlegm, rhinorrhea, sore/dry throat, shortness of breath, sinus congestion, continual wheezing, eye and skin irritation, and diagnosed hypertension. Field measurements identified significantly higher average systolic and diastolic blood pressures () and lower blood oxygen saturation (). Half of the participants perceived that Kīlauea's intensified eruption had negatively affected their health with reports of financial impacts from degradation of agriculture and livestock. Relatively stronger magnitudes of health effects were associated with the higher exposure to vog. Public concerns remain about attributed effects of the ongoing eruption. Enhanced public health efforts are recommended at Kīlauea and other degassing volcanoes worldwide.
1. Introduction
Volcanic emissions have detrimental impacts on the environment and pose numerous hazards to humans. Explosive eruptions have associated mortality and adverse effects from ash fall, whereas effusive eruptions create insidious health risks from the passive degassing of emissions into the lower troposphere [1]. An estimated 9% of the world's population live ≤100 km of a historically active volcano [2]. Therefore, it is imperative to gain an understanding of human-environmental interactions, identify health effects, and develop public health interventions for vulnerable populations exposed to volcanic air pollution.
Effusive eruption at the Kīlauea volcano on the island of Hawai`i has persisted since 1986 from various vents on the volcano's east rift zone. Emissions are predominantly water vapor mixed with carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide (SO2), finely-sized sulfurous particles (PM2.5; primarily sulfuric acid aerosol), and trace gases of hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen fluoride, mercury, other halogens, and trace metals [3, 4]. As SO2 gas oxidizes to sulfate particles through various chemical and atmospheric processes, communities downwind of Kīlauea experience exposure to volcanic smog, known as vog (Figure 1) [4]. Since 2008, regional air pollution has increased substantially due to an additional eruption vent at the volcano's summit crater (Figure 2). The World Health Organization (WHO) guideline [5] and National Ambient Air Quality Standard [6] for SO2 are exceeded on a near-daily basis in the downwind area; a cause of concern for public health.
The impact of Kīlauea's long-standing eruption has been considerable. In 1990, lava flows destroyed over 180 homes and the entire town of Kalapana, resulting in displacement of the residents. High pollution events have occurred with the new summit activity including in April 2008 when a large subdivision located 60 km downwind spiked >2,000 ppbv SO2, resulting in immediate agricultural destruction [7]. In July 2008, the federal government approved a disaster declaration for Hawai`i Island's farmers. Yet Hawai`i's story is not unique. Deterioration of vegetation and agriculture due to degassing at Masaya volcano in Nicaragua has occurred for over a century [8].
Investigations are limited on health effects associated with volcanic degassing. Consistency in these findings suggests that sulfurous volcanic emissions are associated with acute health effects and illnesses in exposed populations. The 1783 effusive eruption of Iceland's Laki volcano produced vog-like pollution over Europe, and medical records documented eye sensitivity, sore throat, cough, shortness of breath, rhinorrhea, headache, and asthma-like exacerbations in the population [9]. In 2005, workers returned to Japan's Miyakejima island after evacuation due to eruption of the island's volcano. Strong dose-response relationships were found between the SO2 degassing and symptoms of cough, sore throat, and breathlessness [10].
At Kīlauea, studies identified adverse health effects associated with low levels of vog prior to the 2008 summit eruption. In the first decade of eruption, workers at Hawai`i Volcanoes National Park reported cough, phlegm, headache, eye irritation, nasal irritation, wheezing, shortness of breath, and throat irritation [11]. In 2004, an initial health survey was conducted when daily SO2 exposure averaged 25 parts per billion (ppbv). Vog-exposed residents experienced increased prevalence of cough, phlegm, rhinorrhea, sore/dry throat, sinus congestion, wheezing, eye irritation, and bronchitis compared to unexposed island residents [12]. Significant elevations in systolic blood pressure and pulse rate were also observed. In a qualitative study, vog-exposed informants noted difficulty in controlling preexisting respiratory conditions at the low exposure levels [13]. In early 2008, when Kīlauea's activity increased and SO2 exposure increased threefold (averaged 75 ppbv/day) from the previous months, significant associations were found between higher vog and increased outpatient clinic visits for cough, headache, pharyngitis, and acute airway problems [14]. In mid-2008, a 6-month hospital surveillance study found a significant increase in emergency department visits for broadly-defined respiratory problems within vog-exposed areas of the island [15]. Still, investigations have not assessed if the increased volcanic activity is concordant with health effects. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to reassess the health impact relative to Kīlauea's increased activity and higher exposure of vog. Study objectives were to (1) determine prevalence of current cardiorespiratory symptoms and diseases from groups of vog-exposed and unexposed island residents; (2) examine differences in cardiorespiratory signs; (3) estimate the associated effect of increased exposure; and (4) compare epidemiological estimates to the initial findings from 2004.
2. Materials and Methods
A cross-sectional environmental-epidemiological design assessed exposure and selected the geographic study areas. Volcanic emission data for point source estimation was obtained from the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory of the US Geological Survey (USGS), and air quality data for the exposure assessment was obtained from air monitors in the study area operated by the State of Hawai`i Clean Air Branch. Study groups were selected based on geographic exposure relative to the island's wind patterns. A cross-sectional design was then used to collect health data obtained by clinical assessment from a door-to-door survey using geographic stratified sampling. The study protocol was approved by the Biomedical Institutional Review Board of the University of Nevada, Reno. The study design, sampling framework, procedures, and analyses were replicated from the initial 2004 population health survey at Kīlauea [12]. The exposure level, geographic study locations, and participants were different, yet allowed comparison to earlier findings.
2.1. Setting and Exposure
The exposed and unexposed geographic areas were rural, with accessible health care facilities that served clients regardless of health insurance coverage. The areas were comparable in meteorology, topography, vegetation, grazing lands, and historical agriculture. No site had substantial anthropogenic air pollution. The residents shared similar histories and lived in areas of former sugar plantations where companies had constructed small towns of plantation-style houses called camps that remained populated today. The study areas also included modern towns and residential subdivisions.
The southern region of the island was continually exposed to Kīlauea's emissions due to the flow of the Pacific trade winds through the marine boundary layer and a temperature inversion at ~1800 m above sea level. The exposed study area was selected to assess geospatial effects and ranged from the boundary of Hawaii Volcanoes National Park to ~70 km distance from source (DFS; i.e., distance from Kīlauea's summit vent) on the southern Kona coast. The most proximal area (~30 km DFS) experienced a diurnal pattern of vog exposure with the highest concentrations of SO2 and PM2.5 from 7 pm to 10 am daily; SO2 was the predominant pollutant. Downwind distal areas (≥50 km DFS) received an inconsistent temporal pattern yet were continually exposed to relatively more sulfate PM2.5 than SO2. The unexposed area was similar in size and ranged from 40 km to 90 km DFS along the northeastern section of the island.
Environmental conditions during the 6-week study during spring of 2012 included usual northeastern Pacific trade winds without disturbances, continuous volcanic activity on the east rift zone and summit, and no lava-sea entries. Kīlauea's emissions averaged 1,340 tpd SO2, as estimated by the USGS using a FLYSPEC spectrometer [21]. Ambient air quality was assessed from state-operated fixed monitors and the researcher's portable instrument. SO2, measured continuously by a TECO pulsed-fluorescence fixed monitor, averaged 49 ppbv/day (hourly range: 0–1,700 ppbv) in the exposed area and was negligible in the unexposed area. The National Ambient Air Quality Standard for SO2 was exceeded on 72% of the study days (1-hr average ≥75 ppbv) [6, 22]. WHO's 24-hr SO2 guideline [5] was exceeded on 100% of the study days. Real-time SO2 measurements were obtained at each exposed participant's residence with an Interscan 4000 Series SO2 monitor and ranged from 0 ppbv to 600 ppbv. The average 24-hr concentration of PM2.5, measured by a Met-One beta-attenuation mass fixed monitor, was 6.4 µg/m3 (hourly range: 0.0–52.0 µg/m3) in the exposed area and 2.0 µg/m3 (hourly range: 0.0–4.0 µg/m3) in the unexposed area. In addition, remote sensing data were reviewed daily from the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (Figure 3) and the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer to confirm vog exposure and nonexposure in the reference area.
2.2. Sampling
Cross sections of each study area, proximal to distal from the volcano, were employed to obtain a geographically representative and probability-based sample. Sampling included all towns and camps as well as residences in outlying locations. Participants were systematically selected from every 4th household on every street in towns and rural subdivisions. Sampling was restricted to no more than two participants per household to avoid over-representation of any one household. Sampling occurred during daylight hours 6 days a week. Eligible participants were adults aged ≥20 years with a minimum residence of 7 years (i.e., chronic exposure). The residents of the study areas were primarily Filipinos, native Hawaiians, Japanese, Pacific islanders, and non-Hispanic Whites [23]. The participation rate among eligible residents was 94%.
2.3. Procedures
Verbal informed consent was obtained from all participants at the outset of their participation. Health data were collected by interview and physical assessment at participants' homes by the researcher (an advanced public health nurse) in English (94%) or Tagalog (6%); none were needed in Japanese translation. The health interview was comprised of standardized, yes/no questions (current cardiorespiratory and dermal symptoms; lifestyle factors and demographic data) taken from the validated National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey [24], and American Thoracic Society's Respiratory Symptom Questionnaire [25]. A health history was obtained for medically diagnosed diseases (since 2008) and current medications. Participants provided qualitative descriptions of how Kīlauea's increased activity had affected their health, daily lives, and the environment.
The health assessment included blood pressure (BP), radial pulse rate, respiratory rate, and oximetry taken on all participants after 15 minutes of rest in a sitting position. BP was measured with a calibrated aneroid sphygmomanometer placed at heart level, with a proper cuff for arm size, using the slow-deflation auscultatory method [26]. For systolic pressures ≥160 mm Hg, two measurements were taken 5 minutes apart. Radial pulse rates were taken for 30 seconds with regular rhythm and 1 minute for irregular rhythms. Respiratory rate and blood oxygen saturation measured by an oximeter were assessed over a 1-minute time period. The same researcher and equipment were used with all study participants to prevent interviewer bias, minimize misclassification bias, and ensure reliability of these data. Time commitment for participants averaged 20 minutes.
2.4. Statistical Analyses
To estimate the effects of vog exposure, crude odds ratios (ORs) were calculated from prevalence estimates for each exposure group. The 95% confidence interval (CI) of the point estimate was used for significance testing. Stratified analyses were conducted initially to evaluate for confounding and test for effect modification (EM). The Mantel-Haenszel estimator was used to control confounding for a uniform OR, and the chi-square test for heterogeneity was used to test for EM. The Mantel-Haenszel extension test was used for analysis of trends. Finally, logistic regression analyses adjusted the OR for a priori-selected potential confounders. Adjusted ORs and 95% CIs were calculated after controlling for categorical variables and prespecified confounders of gender, smoking (never, former, or current), occupational dust exposure, race (Hawaiian, Filipino, Japanese, White, and other), age (years), and body-mass index (BMI). Symptoms of cough or dry cough are known side effects from certain antihypertensive medications; hence, analyses for these symptoms were restricted to participants not taking these medications. Measures of central tendency were calculated on vital sign variables and Student's t-test of nondirectional hypotheses was performed for comparison of the unexposed and exposed groups. Demographic data of the groups were compared using chi-square or t-test analyses. All analyses employed a 5% probability of a Type I error (α = 0.05). Power analysis a priori determined the study's sample size to allow detection of ≥2.0 epidemiological magnitude of effect. Data were analyzed with SPSS version 20.0 (SPSS, Chicago, IL).
3. Results
Study groups were comparable for nearly all demographic and health characteristics (Table 1). Significant differences between groups were identified in the percentage of native Hawaiians participants and average residency time.
|Note. All participants were ≥20 years with a minimum of 7 years residency in the study areas.
Vog exposure was associated with substantially increased odds of self-reported cardiorespiratory and dermal symptoms (Table 2). Prevalence for daily cough, nocturnal dry cough, and cough with phlegm was significantly higher in the exposed group even when restricted to nonsmokers. The OR for SOB without exertion was three times higher in the vog-exposed group with even higher magnitude for nonsmoking participants. Although prevalence of wheezing in the last year did not differ between groups, the symptom of wheezing most days and nights was significant with effect modification in exposed participants <65 years of age (OR = 6.05, CI: 1.67–21.94; ). Upper airway, skin, and eye symptoms were over four times more likely to be reported by vog-exposed participants. All symptoms experienced while outdoors were associated with high exposure ORs. Significantly higher effect measures for sore or dry throat, wheezing day and night, and sinus congestion were associated with an increased distance from source (, and 0.04, resp.).
|Note. : prevalence; OR: odds ratio; CI: confidence interval; and SOB: shortness of breath. aAdjusted for age, gender, race, smoking status, BMI, and occupational dust exposure. bNonmedicated: participants not taking medications with side effect of cough.
Medically-diagnosed hypertension was the only cardiorespiratory disease associated with vog exposure (OR = 1.92, CI: 1.01–3.67). Significant differences between groups were identified in vital sign measurements (Table 3). Elevated BP was associated with vog exposure in both OR and t-test analyses. The likelihood of having high BP (≥90 diastolic or ≥140 systolic) was doubled in exposed participants (adjusted OR = 2.32, CI: 1.30–4.14), with effect modification in elderly participants (OR = 4.65, CI: 1.82–11.91; ). BP did not vary in relation to distance from source. A significantly higher mean systolic BP (+5.18 mm Hg) and mean diastolic BP (+4.70 mm Hg) were identified in vog-exposed participants. Significant exposure effects on BP were identified in nonsmokers, males, Filipinos, Whites, the elderly, and participants of normal weight. Nonsmokers exposed to ≥30 ppbv SO2 had significantly higher diastolic BP (+9.08 mm Hg; ). Exposure effects were also detected for blood oxygen saturation. Average pulse measurements did not significantly differ between study groups; however, when analyses were restricted to nonsmokers and nonmedicated participants, exposed individuals averaged nearly 10 beats per minute (bpm) faster than their unexposed counterparts.
|Note. SD: standard deviation; BMI: body-mass index; and mm Hg: millimeters of mercury.
Half of all study participants perceived that the eruption since 2008 had affected their health. Not surprisingly, more participants from the exposed group (61%) than from the unexposed group (37%) expressed this belief. Exposed participants shared about daily experiences with the ongoing eruption and elevated vog, whereas unexposed residents described their experiences when vog came into their area or they visited an exposed area on the island. Health effects attributed to vog varied from minor nuisances to deterioration of health status. Participants without respiratory disease reported upper respiratory symptoms, irritability, low energy levels, body aches, sleep disturbances, and headaches. Chronic symptoms were throat irritation and a persistent cough that lasted for weeks. Participants with cardiorespiratory disease reported breathing difficulties ranging from exacerbations of chest tightness and breathlessness during everyday vog levels to distress only during high pollution events. These participants noted the importance of being compliant with self-care maintenance activities such as carrying emergency medications, using at-home nebulizer treatments and air conditioning in the car, and staying indoors.
Participants also noted aesthetic concerns, agricultural and animal husbandry effects, and financial impacts on their lives attributed to the increased eruption. They described occasionally experiencing the noxious sulfurous odor of vog, a metallic or acid-like taste, and declared the sky was no longer blue. Agricultural effects included kills of flower and vegetable crops (i.e., proteas, orchids) during high vog events, as well as overall reduced production in crops (i.e., coffee, avocados). Many participants reported nearly continuous visible leaf damage and showed the researcher examples in their garden or patios. In addition to a direct loss of income from cash crops, farmers and ranchers reported additional expenses such as replacement of fencing (sometimes hundreds of square miles), vitamin supplements for livestock, fertilizers for the soil, and replacement of new plants. Despite these adverse effects, some participants perceived a benefit from increased tourism on the island due to the attraction of Kīlauea's increased activity.
4. Discussion
This study at Kīlauea volcano identified higher prevalence estimates and stronger magnitudes of cardiorespiratory effects associated with the increased volcanic activity and higher levels of pollution. Although SO2 emissions in this study were similar in total amount as during the 2004 study [12], the downwind communities experienced twofold the exposure due to the geographic location of the new summit vent relative to the island's wind flow patterns. The study further revealed an enhanced understanding of human-environmental interactions from both objective health data and subjective experiences of the eruption.
4.1. Physiological Findings
The study identified high prevalence and strong magnitudes of dermal, ocular, and cardiorespiratory effects from an average daily SO2 exposure of 49 ppbv with hourly maximums up to 1,700 ppbv. Adverse physiological symptoms remained consistent with those identified during the initial study with lower exposure [12]. A vog-associated skin irritation was newly identified, yet previously observed in workers at Miyakejima island's volcano during periods of high SO2 [10]. No human studies to date have been conducted on dermal effects or the dermal exposure route of SO2 [27, 28]. Eye irritation was experienced by half of exposed participants, an increase from 33% reported previously at Kīlauea [12]. A recent case series study in Honolulu during a high vog event identified signs of conjunctival injection with clear mucous discharge, along with symptoms of eye irritation, and the authors proposed the term vog-induced conjunctivitis [29]. It is validated that SO2 affects the mechanical functioning of the upper airways with minor ocular and nasal-pharyngeal effects [27, 30]. Most respiratory symptoms in the present study showed relatively higher prevalence and exposure odd ratios than previously identified, especially symptoms experienced while outdoors. Inhaled SO2 is mostly absorbed in the upper respiratory tract (40%–90%) due to high water solubility [30]. Hence, the increased prevalence of respiratory symptoms relative to higher exposure is biologically plausible. Future studies in volcanic environments should include assessment of dermal exposure effects.
Further cardiorespiratory effects were revealed with the higher exposure, which included elevated BP parameters (systolic and diastolic) and SOB without exertion. The major risk factor for an acute cardiac event in persons >50 years of age is systolic BP >140 mm Hg [26]. This parameter was exceeded by 60% of exposed participants, but by only 29% of the unexposed in this age range. Prevalence increased 12% since 2004 for this cardiovascular risk factor [12]. An elevated systolic BP in vog-exposed Filipinos was also previously identified [12] and observed in this study documenting a disparity needing further exploration. Therefore, in addition to routine screening, healthcare providers should educate on traditional cardiovascular risk factors and emphasize practical recommendations to reduce exposure [31]. Most interesting was the new finding of an exposure-associated decreased oxygen saturation, likely related to exposure of the PM2.5 component of vog rather than SO2. A study of 28 elders (>60 yrs of age) found a significant inverse association between urban PM2.5 and oxygen saturation [32]. This study's findings, from an adult population in a volcanic environment, further support the hypothesis that cardiovascular functioning is affected by exposure to fine PM [31].
Most notable in this reassessment at Kīlauea were vog-associated effects among nonsmokers for symptoms of daily cough, phlegm, dry cough, SOB without exertion, and objective measures of elevated BP parameters and lower oxygen saturation. These findings suggest an enhanced cardiorespiratory risk at the higher exposure levels among the general adult population, not just sensitive members. Still, participants with preexisting conditions perceived being most affected by vog, with challenges for disease management.
Downwind geographic areas were exposed to different volcanic pollutants relative to distance from emission source. This study is the first to identify geospatial differences in prevalence of respiratory ailments. Future health studies in volcanic environments should consider distance from source in epidemiological assessments. Studies have identified built environments (e.g., structure type) that can affect vog-exposure risk and recommended interventions [16]. Hence, vulnerability is intertwined with volcanic phenomena in communities near active volcanoes.
4.2. Public Health Interventions
Over half of exposed participants perceived that their health was affected by Kīlauea's eruption, yet they were motivated in self-care practices to live with this natural source of pollution. The high study participation rate reflected shared concerns in these island communities about health and environmental effects related to the ongoing eruption. The state of Hawai`i has used research evidence in the past to develop policy and prevention initiatives related to vog [33]. The Hawai`i Rural Health Association has been an advocate for exposed populations, working to increase the community's participation in their health. In addition to volcano monitoring, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory of the USGS has been actively engaged with educating the public, and Hawai`i island's Civil Defense has developed emergency response plans for high vog events and other volcanic hazards. However, sustained multidisciplinary efforts are still needed to educate and protect these vulnerable communities from the current and future eruptions at Kīlauea and other active volcanoes of Hawai`i.
On average, 50 volcanoes erupt each year [34]. The International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior has a number of commissions working to reduce volcanic risk, including the multidisciplined International Volcanic Health Hazard Network [35]. Studies are now examining acute and residual effects of major eruptions and are leading to important public health interventions, disaster planning, and multidisciplinary efforts to enhance population health in volcanic areas around the world. Table 4 describes public health efforts that focus across levels of prevention and consider the vulnerable members of the population (i.e., children, elderly, and chronic disease). Knowledge gleaned from efforts at Kīlauea volcano is relevant to other communities challenged with volcanic activity and degassing.
4.3. Limitations
There are several considerations about this work that should be noted. First, the cross-sectional epidemiologic design was susceptible to selection bias, misclassification, and measured associations not causality. Vog has exposed the study area since 1983, yet migration out of the area is unknown. According to the recent 2010 US Decennial Census, both exposed and unexposed study areas experienced +9% growths in population since 2000 [21]. However, this study found residency time was lower in the exposed group. Therefore, a "healthy survivor" effect could have underestimated prevalence in the exposed area. Misclassification through subject recall bias could also have affected prevalence estimates, though both study groups would be prone to this limitation. Second, Kīlauea offers a natural laboratory to study human-environmental interactions not a controlled environment. Concentrations and chemical composition of vog vary with changes in volcanic activity and island meteorology, resulting in inconsistent exposures. Thus, the health assessments occurred with differing concentrations of vog, from relatively low to high levels. Still, at some time over a 24-hr period during the study, the exposed participants were exposed to vog. Third, the small sample size could not allow detection of small yet significant magnitudes of effect (<2.0) for other cardiorespiratory diseases that could exist in the exposed population. Finally, potential confounding of these data must be considered. Even with restriction to prevent confounding effects and analyses to control confounding, there may have been an influence of unknown confounders on these estimates.
5. Conclusions
The magnitude of associated cardiorespiratory effects has increased in vog-exposed communities at the Kīlauea volcano, Hawai`i. Many signs and symptoms of adverse biological responses have been detected in the exposed population that range from increased likelihood for experiencing upper respiratory reactions to more serious elevated cardiovascular risk factors. These findings are likely related to the higher volcanic air pollution experienced in downwind communities since the summit eruption began in 2008. Consequently, continuous epidemiologic surveillance, new screening programs, and enhanced evidence-based interventions for population health are recommended at Kīlauea and other degassing volcanoes worldwide.
Conflict of Interests
The author declares no conflict of interests.
This study was funded by a small grant from the Sigma Theta Tau International Foundation. The author wishes to acknowledge the continued support for this program of research from the Orvis School of Nursing at the University of Nevada, Reno.
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Copyright © 2013 Bernadette M. Longo. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.


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DayBreaks for 08/31/12 – Infused by God
(NOTE: Galen will be traveling for the next week and will have very limited access to email to respond to comments/questions. Thanks for your understanding!)
Jeremiah 18:5-6 – "5 Then the word of the LORD came to me: 6 "O house of Israel, can I not do with you as this potter does?" declares the LORD. "Like clay in the hand of the potter, so are you in my hand, O house of Israel."
Yesterday's DayBreaks had to do with the illustration of God as the potter and we as his clay. The second point I got out of a recent talk I heard had to do with the inability of the clay to do or be anything other than what it is without the potter's handling of it.
We like to think that we know what is best for ourselves and even others – especially those we love. We think "if only this, or that", we would be happy. The plain truth is that without God enabling us we couldn't even continue living, much less order our own lives to make us happy.
A lump of clay can't do anything with itself and simply remains a lump of clay. But when a potter handles the clay, he infuses his ideas, skill and knowledge into it and out of what is in the potter, comes what is created. It is the same with God and us. When he "molds us and makes us after his will" he infuses his Spirit into us, making us into what fulfills the potential he knows we have that He himself put into us. More than that, through his Spirit, he makes us more Christ-like. He fills that "God-shaped hole" in us with himself and we become what he has had in mind for us to be throughout eternity.
Is that why people who have refused God won't be with him in eternity? Is it that lumps of clay without the spirit of their Maker in them have nothing eternal to live on with? I don't know, but it is worth remembering these things when what we are going through seems too hard to bear.
I am eager to find out what God intends me to be throughout eternity. And I'm eager to see how much more wonderful my loved ones and friends will be when I see what God has fashioned them to be!
PRAYER: I yield, Lord. I've fought you most of my life and I still do, day by day. I know I shall fight you again, but what I really want is to be what You intend for me to be in eternity. Until that day, hold me! In Jesus' name, Amen.
Copyright 2012 by Galen C. Dalrymple.
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