Dataset statistics
Number of variables | 3 |
---|---|
Number of observations | 93 |
Missing cells | 0 |
Missing cells (%) | 0.0% |
Duplicate rows | 0 |
Duplicate rows (%) | 0.0% |
Total size in memory | 2.3 KiB |
Average record size in memory | 25.4 B |
Variable types
Categorical | 3 |
---|
time has a high cardinality: 93 distinct values | High cardinality |
story is highly correlated with title and 1 other fields | High correlation |
title is highly correlated with story and 1 other fields | High correlation |
time is highly correlated with story and 1 other fields | High correlation |
title is highly correlated with story and 1 other fields | High correlation |
story is highly correlated with title and 1 other fields | High correlation |
time is highly correlated with title and 1 other fields | High correlation |
time is uniformly distributed | Uniform |
time has unique values | Unique |
Reproduction
Analysis started | 2022-10-20 19:04:05.736377 |
---|---|
Analysis finished | 2022-10-20 19:04:09.219235 |
Duration | 3.48 seconds |
Software version | pandas-profiling v3.2.0 |
Download configuration | config.json |
Distinct | 35 |
---|---|
Distinct (%) | 37.6% |
Missing | 0 |
Missing (%) | 0.0% |
Memory size | 872.0 B |
International Sports Science Association (ISSA) | |
---|---|
cerebrovascular disease | 5 |
the collective nature of the text | 4 |
New York City is the largest | 4 |
speeches | 4 |
Other values (30) |
Length
Max length | 5558 |
---|---|
Median length | 65 |
Mean length | 258.2688172 |
Min length | 2 |
Characters and Unicode
Total characters | 24019 |
---|---|
Distinct characters | 84 |
Distinct categories | 12 ? |
Distinct scripts | 2 ? |
Distinct blocks | 5 ? |
Unique
Unique | 15 ? |
---|---|
Unique (%) | 16.1% |
Sample
1st row | electromagnetic energy is absorbed or emitted in discrete packets |
---|---|
2nd row | speeches |
3rd row | cerebrovascular disease |
4th row | antidepressant medications |
5th row | Scalp cooling |
Common Values
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
International Sports Science Association (ISSA) | 9 | 9.7% |
cerebrovascular disease | 5 | 5.4% |
the collective nature of the text | 4 | 4.3% |
New York City is the largest | 4 | 4.3% |
speeches | 4 | 4.3% |
at any age and not just during or after menopause | 4 | 4.3% |
provides the prescription drug | 4 | 4.3% |
description, identification, nomenclature, and classification of organisms | 4 | 4.3% |
Film | 4 | 4.3% |
by | 4 | 4.3% |
Other values (25) | 47 |
Length
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
the | 285 | 7.5% |
of | 127 | 3.4% |
a | 105 | 2.8% |
to | 91 | 2.4% |
and | 75 | 2.0% |
64 | 1.7% | |
star | 57 | 1.5% |
for | 50 | 1.3% |
time | 46 | 1.2% |
in | 41 | 1.1% |
Other values (1006) | 2850 |
Most occurring characters
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
3627 | ||
e | 2303 | 9.6% |
t | 1898 | 7.9% |
a | 1698 | 7.1% |
o | 1469 | 6.1% |
r | 1425 | 5.9% |
s | 1376 | 5.7% |
i | 1331 | 5.5% |
n | 1223 | 5.1% |
l | 749 | 3.1% |
Other values (74) | 6920 |
Most occurring categories
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
Lowercase Letter | 18705 | |
Space Separator | 3627 | 15.1% |
Uppercase Letter | 640 | 2.7% |
Other Punctuation | 433 | 1.8% |
Decimal Number | 176 | 0.7% |
Control | 156 | 0.6% |
Math Symbol | 128 | 0.5% |
Open Punctuation | 57 | 0.2% |
Close Punctuation | 53 | 0.2% |
Dash Punctuation | 41 | 0.2% |
Other values (2) | 3 | < 0.1% |
Most frequent character per category
Lowercase Letter
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
e | 2303 | |
t | 1898 | |
a | 1698 | 9.1% |
o | 1469 | 7.9% |
r | 1425 | 7.6% |
s | 1376 | 7.4% |
i | 1331 | 7.1% |
n | 1223 | 6.5% |
l | 749 | 4.0% |
c | 746 | 4.0% |
Other values (19) | 4487 |
Uppercase Letter
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
S | 119 | |
I | 66 | 10.3% |
T | 65 | 10.2% |
A | 51 | 8.0% |
C | 39 | 6.1% |
N | 34 | 5.3% |
P | 29 | 4.5% |
B | 26 | 4.1% |
R | 24 | 3.8% |
M | 22 | 3.4% |
Other values (14) | 165 |
Decimal Number
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
0 | 65 | |
1 | 36 | |
9 | 15 | 8.5% |
2 | 12 | 6.8% |
5 | 12 | 6.8% |
4 | 10 | 5.7% |
3 | 9 | 5.1% |
6 | 9 | 5.1% |
7 | 5 | 2.8% |
8 | 3 | 1.7% |
Other Punctuation
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
, | 201 | |
. | 167 | |
" | 18 | 4.2% |
' | 16 | 3.7% |
/ | 14 | 3.2% |
: | 9 | 2.1% |
; | 7 | 1.6% |
* | 1 | 0.2% |
Math Symbol
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
= | 123 | |
+ | 4 | 3.1% |
− | 1 | 0.8% |
Control
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
142 | ||
14 | 9.0% |
Open Punctuation
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
( | 55 | |
[ | 2 | 3.5% |
Close Punctuation
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
) | 51 | |
] | 2 | 3.8% |
Space Separator
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
3627 |
Dash Punctuation
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
- | 41 |
Modifier Letter
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
ˈ | 2 |
Other Symbol
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
° | 1 |
Most occurring scripts
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
Latin | 19345 | |
Common | 4674 | 19.5% |
Most frequent character per script
Latin
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
e | 2303 | |
t | 1898 | 9.8% |
a | 1698 | 8.8% |
o | 1469 | 7.6% |
r | 1425 | 7.4% |
s | 1376 | 7.1% |
i | 1331 | 6.9% |
n | 1223 | 6.3% |
l | 749 | 3.9% |
c | 746 | 3.9% |
Other values (43) | 5127 |
Common
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
3627 | ||
, | 201 | 4.3% |
. | 167 | 3.6% |
142 | 3.0% | |
= | 123 | 2.6% |
0 | 65 | 1.4% |
( | 55 | 1.2% |
) | 51 | 1.1% |
- | 41 | 0.9% |
1 | 36 | 0.8% |
Other values (21) | 166 | 3.6% |
Most occurring blocks
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
ASCII | 24011 | |
IPA Ext | 4 | < 0.1% |
Modifier Letters | 2 | < 0.1% |
None | 1 | < 0.1% |
Math Operators | 1 | < 0.1% |
Most frequent character per block
ASCII
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
3627 | ||
e | 2303 | 9.6% |
t | 1898 | 7.9% |
a | 1698 | 7.1% |
o | 1469 | 6.1% |
r | 1425 | 5.9% |
s | 1376 | 5.7% |
i | 1331 | 5.5% |
n | 1223 | 5.1% |
l | 749 | 3.1% |
Other values (68) | 6912 |
Modifier Letters
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
ˈ | 2 |
IPA Ext
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
ɔ | 2 | |
ə | 1 | |
ʀ | 1 |
None
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
° | 1 |
Math Operators
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
− | 1 |
Distinct | 26 |
---|---|
Distinct (%) | 28.0% |
Missing | 0 |
Missing (%) | 0.0% |
Memory size | 872.0 B |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | |
---|---|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease | 5 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_tracker | 4 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthology | 4 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero | 4 |
Other values (21) |
Length
Max length | 74 |
---|---|
Median length | 51 |
Mean length | 44.84946237 |
Min length | 35 |
Characters and Unicode
Total characters | 4171 |
---|---|
Distinct characters | 49 |
Distinct categories | 5 ? |
Distinct scripts | 2 ? |
Distinct blocks | 1 ? |
Unique
Unique | 7 ? |
---|---|
Unique (%) | 7.5% |
Sample
1st row | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum |
---|---|
2nd row | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero |
3rd row | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease |
4th row | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_neuropathy |
5th row | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemotherapy |
Common Values
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | 22 | |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease | 5 | 5.4% |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_tracker | 4 | 4.3% |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthology | 4 | 4.3% |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero | 4 | 4.3% |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacy | 4 | 4.3% |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy | 4 | 4.3% |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_services | 4 | 4.3% |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Securitization | 4 | 4.3% |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina | 4 | 4.3% |
Other values (16) | 34 |
Length
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/physical_fitness | 22 | |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/alzheimer%27s_disease | 5 | 5.4% |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/securitization | 4 | 4.3% |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/peripheral_neuropathy | 4 | 4.3% |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/chemotherapy | 4 | 4.3% |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/death | 4 | 4.3% |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/medicina | 4 | 4.3% |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/national_commission_for_culture_and_the_arts | 4 | 4.3% |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/financial_services | 4 | 4.3% |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/taxonomy | 4 | 4.3% |
Other values (16) | 34 |
Most occurring characters
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
i | 584 | |
/ | 372 | 8.9% |
e | 308 | 7.4% |
t | 275 | 6.6% |
a | 209 | 5.0% |
p | 207 | 5.0% |
s | 202 | 4.8% |
k | 192 | 4.6% |
. | 186 | 4.5% |
w | 186 | 4.5% |
Other values (39) | 1450 |
Most occurring categories
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
Lowercase Letter | 3305 | |
Other Punctuation | 658 | 15.8% |
Uppercase Letter | 113 | 2.7% |
Connector Punctuation | 85 | 2.0% |
Decimal Number | 10 | 0.2% |
Most frequent character per category
Lowercase Letter
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
i | 584 | |
e | 308 | 9.3% |
t | 275 | 8.3% |
a | 209 | 6.3% |
p | 207 | 6.3% |
s | 202 | 6.1% |
k | 192 | 5.8% |
w | 186 | 5.6% |
r | 175 | 5.3% |
n | 170 | 5.1% |
Other values (14) | 797 |
Uppercase Letter
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
P | 30 | |
A | 18 | |
C | 18 | |
S | 13 | |
N | 6 | 5.3% |
T | 5 | 4.4% |
F | 4 | 3.5% |
M | 4 | 3.5% |
D | 4 | 3.5% |
W | 2 | 1.8% |
Other values (7) | 9 | 8.0% |
Other Punctuation
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
/ | 372 | |
. | 186 | |
: | 93 | 14.1% |
% | 5 | 0.8% |
, | 2 | 0.3% |
Decimal Number
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
7 | 5 | |
2 | 5 |
Connector Punctuation
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
_ | 85 |
Most occurring scripts
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
Latin | 3418 | |
Common | 753 | 18.1% |
Most frequent character per script
Latin
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
i | 584 | |
e | 308 | 9.0% |
t | 275 | 8.0% |
a | 209 | 6.1% |
p | 207 | 6.1% |
s | 202 | 5.9% |
k | 192 | 5.6% |
w | 186 | 5.4% |
r | 175 | 5.1% |
n | 170 | 5.0% |
Other values (31) | 910 |
Common
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
/ | 372 | |
. | 186 | |
: | 93 | 12.4% |
_ | 85 | 11.3% |
7 | 5 | 0.7% |
% | 5 | 0.7% |
2 | 5 | 0.7% |
, | 2 | 0.3% |
Most occurring blocks
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
ASCII | 4171 |
Most frequent character per block
ASCII
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
i | 584 | |
/ | 372 | 8.9% |
e | 308 | 7.4% |
t | 275 | 6.6% |
a | 209 | 5.0% |
p | 207 | 5.0% |
s | 202 | 4.8% |
k | 192 | 4.6% |
. | 186 | 4.5% |
w | 186 | 4.5% |
Other values (39) | 1450 |
Distinct | 93 |
---|---|
Distinct (%) | 100.0% |
Missing | 0 |
Missing (%) | 0.0% |
Memory size | 872.0 B |
2022-10-12 01:47:58.485120 | 1 |
---|---|
2022-10-12 02:42:11.480184 | 1 |
2022-10-12 02:43:19.284149 | 1 |
2022-10-12 02:43:07.107545 | 1 |
2022-10-12 02:42:58.815490 | 1 |
Other values (88) |
Length
Max length | 26 |
---|---|
Median length | 26 |
Mean length | 26 |
Min length | 26 |
Characters and Unicode
Total characters | 2418 |
---|---|
Distinct characters | 14 |
Distinct categories | 4 ? |
Distinct scripts | 1 ? |
Distinct blocks | 1 ? |
Unique
Unique | 93 ? |
---|---|
Unique (%) | 100.0% |
Sample
1st row | 2022-10-12 01:47:58.485120 |
---|---|
2nd row | 2022-10-12 01:48:09.186213 |
3rd row | 2022-10-12 01:48:18.661961 |
4th row | 2022-10-12 01:48:25.728941 |
5th row | 2022-10-12 01:48:37.233833 |
Common Values
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
2022-10-12 01:47:58.485120 | 1 | 1.1% |
2022-10-12 02:42:11.480184 | 1 | 1.1% |
2022-10-12 02:43:19.284149 | 1 | 1.1% |
2022-10-12 02:43:07.107545 | 1 | 1.1% |
2022-10-12 02:42:58.815490 | 1 | 1.1% |
2022-10-12 02:42:49.080367 | 1 | 1.1% |
2022-10-12 02:42:38.877997 | 1 | 1.1% |
2022-10-12 02:42:33.620596 | 1 | 1.1% |
2022-10-12 02:42:28.030169 | 1 | 1.1% |
2022-10-12 02:42:22.874569 | 1 | 1.1% |
Other values (83) | 83 |
Length
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
2022-10-12 | 78 | |
2022-10-19 | 7 | 3.8% |
2022-10-14 | 4 | 2.2% |
2022-10-17 | 2 | 1.1% |
01:49:17.023443 | 1 | 0.5% |
01:48:37.233833 | 1 | 0.5% |
01:48:45.158220 | 1 | 0.5% |
01:48:48.752157 | 1 | 0.5% |
01:48:56.000813 | 1 | 0.5% |
01:49:00.637205 | 1 | 0.5% |
Other values (89) | 89 |
Most occurring characters
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
2 | 526 | |
0 | 376 | |
1 | 345 | |
- | 186 | 7.7% |
: | 186 | 7.7% |
4 | 105 | 4.3% |
5 | 105 | 4.3% |
93 | 3.8% | |
. | 93 | 3.8% |
3 | 92 | 3.8% |
Other values (4) | 311 |
Most occurring categories
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
Decimal Number | 1860 | |
Other Punctuation | 279 | 11.5% |
Dash Punctuation | 186 | 7.7% |
Space Separator | 93 | 3.8% |
Most frequent character per category
Decimal Number
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
2 | 526 | |
0 | 376 | |
1 | 345 | |
4 | 105 | 5.6% |
5 | 105 | 5.6% |
3 | 92 | 4.9% |
9 | 85 | 4.6% |
8 | 80 | 4.3% |
6 | 76 | 4.1% |
7 | 70 | 3.8% |
Other Punctuation
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
: | 186 | |
. | 93 |
Dash Punctuation
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
- | 186 |
Space Separator
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
93 |
Most occurring scripts
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
Common | 2418 |
Most frequent character per script
Common
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
2 | 526 | |
0 | 376 | |
1 | 345 | |
- | 186 | 7.7% |
: | 186 | 7.7% |
4 | 105 | 4.3% |
5 | 105 | 4.3% |
93 | 3.8% | |
. | 93 | 3.8% |
3 | 92 | 3.8% |
Other values (4) | 311 |
Most occurring blocks
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
ASCII | 2418 |
Most frequent character per block
ASCII
Value | Count | Frequency (%) |
2 | 526 | |
0 | 376 | |
1 | 345 | |
- | 186 | 7.7% |
: | 186 | 7.7% |
4 | 105 | 4.3% |
5 | 105 | 4.3% |
93 | 3.8% | |
. | 93 | 3.8% |
3 | 92 | 3.8% |
Other values (4) | 311 |
Cramér's V (φc)
Cramér's V is an association measure for nominal random variables. The coefficient ranges from 0 to 1, with 0 indicating independence and 1 indicating perfect association. The empirical estimators used for Cramér's V have been proved to be biased, even for large samples. We use a bias-corrected measure that has been proposed by Bergsma in 2013 that can be found here.Phik (φk)
Phik (φk) is a new and practical correlation coefficient that works consistently between categorical, ordinal and interval variables, captures non-linear dependency and reverts to the Pearson correlation coefficient in case of a bivariate normal input distribution. There is extensive documentation available here.First rows
title | story | time | |
---|---|---|---|
0 | electromagnetic energy is absorbed or emitted in discrete packets | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum | 2022-10-12 01:47:58.485120 |
1 | speeches | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero | 2022-10-12 01:48:09.186213 |
2 | cerebrovascular disease | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease | 2022-10-12 01:48:18.661961 |
3 | antidepressant medications | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_neuropathy | 2022-10-12 01:48:25.728941 |
4 | Scalp cooling | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemotherapy | 2022-10-12 01:48:37.233833 |
5 | pro-aging trance | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death | 2022-10-12 01:48:45.158220 |
6 | Radioastronomia di Bologna (Institute for Radio Astronomy | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina | 2022-10-12 01:48:48.752157 |
7 | by | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Securitization | 2022-10-12 01:48:56.000813 |
8 | New York City is the largest | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_services | 2022-10-12 01:49:00.637205 |
9 | the collective nature of the text | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthology | 2022-10-12 01:49:04.268440 |
Last rows
title | story | time | |
---|---|---|---|
83 | metadata | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalable_Vector_Graphics | 2022-10-17 15:42:07.764264 |
84 | Organized efforts to search for extraterrestrial intelligence | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology | 2022-10-17 15:42:25.557130 |
85 | == Function ===\nCalcium is an essential element | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium | 2022-10-18 15:55:02.907650 |
86 | A star trail is a type of photograph that uses long exposure times to capture diurnal circles, the apparent motion of stars in the night sky due to Earth's rotation. A star-trail photograph shows individual stars as streaks across the image, with longer exposures yielding longer arcs. The term is used for similar photos captured elsewhere, such as on board the International Space Station and on Mars.Typical shutter speeds for a star trail range from 15 minutes to several hours, requiring a "Bulb" setting on the camera to open the shutter for a period longer than usual. However, a more practiced technique is to blend a number of frames together to create the final star trail image.Star trails have been used by professional astronomers to measure the quality of observing locations for major telescopes.\n\n\n== Capture ==\n\nStar trail photographs are captured by placing a camera on a tripod, pointing the lens toward the night sky, and allowing the shutter to stay open for a long period of time. Star trails are considered relatively easy for amateur astrophotographers to create. Photographers generally make these images by using a DSLR or Mirrorless camera with its lens focus set to infinity. A cable release or intervalometer allows the photographer to hold the shutter open for the desired amount of time. Typical exposure times range from 15 minutes to many hours long, depending on the desired length of the star trail arcs for the image. Even though star trail pictures are created under low-light conditions, long exposure times allow fast films, such as ISO 200 and ISO 400. Wide-apertures, such as f/5.6 and f/4, are recommended for star trails.\n\nBecause exposure times for star trail photographs can be several hours long, camera batteries can be easily depleted. Mechanical cameras that do not require a battery to open and close the shutter have an advantage over more modern film and digital cameras that rely on battery power. On these cameras, the Bulb, or B, exposure setting keeps the shutter open. Another problem that digital cameras encounter is an increase in electronic noise with increasing exposure time. However, this can be avoided through the use of shorter exposure times that are then stacked in post production software. This avoids possible heat build up or digital noise caused from a single long exposure. \nAmerican astronaut Don Pettit recorded star trails with a digital camera from the International Space Station in Earth orbit between April and June, 2012. Pettit described his technique as follows: "My star trail images are made by taking a time exposure of about 10 to 15 minutes. However, with modern digital cameras, 30 seconds is about the longest exposure possible, due to electronic detector noise effectively snowing out the image. To achieve the longer exposures I do what many amateur astronomers do. I take multiple 30-second exposures, then 'stack' them using imaging software, thus producing the longer exposure."Star trail images have also been taken on Mars. The Spirit rover produced them while looking for meteors. Since the camera was limited to 60 second exposures the trails appear as dashed lines.\n\n\n== Earth's rotation ==\n\nStar trail photographs are possible because of the rotation of Earth about its axis. The apparent motion of the stars is recorded as mostly curved streaks on the film or detector. For observers in the Northern Hemisphere, aiming the camera northward creates an image with concentric circular arcs centered on the north celestial pole (very near Polaris). For those in the Southern Hemisphere, this same effect is achieved by aiming the camera southward. In this case, the arc streaks are centered on the south celestial pole (near Sigma Octantis). Aiming the camera eastward or westward shows straight streaks on the celestial equator, which is tilted at angle with respect to the horizon. The angular measure of this tilt depends on the photographer's latitude (L), and is equal to 90° − L.\n\n\n== Astronomical site testing ==\nStar trail photographs can be used by astronomers to determine the quality of a location for telescope observations. Star trail observations of Polaris have been used to measure the quality of seeing in the atmosphere, and the vibrations in telescope mounting systems. The first recorded suggestion of this technique is from E.S. Skinner's 1931 book A Manual of Celestial Photography.\n\n\n== Gallery ==\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\n4 Steps To Creating Star Trails Photos Using Stacking Software\nStar trail photography\nStarStaX free multi-platform star trail software | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_trail | 2022-10-19 00:58:13.680029 |
87 | E.S. Skinner | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_trail | 2022-10-19 00:58:16.667325 |
88 | A star tracker is an optical device that measures the positions of stars using photocells or a camera.\nAs the positions of many stars have been measured by astronomers to a high degree of accuracy, a star tracker on a satellite or spacecraft may be used to determine the orientation (or attitude) of the spacecraft with respect to the stars. In order to do this, the star tracker must obtain an image of the stars, measure their apparent position in the reference frame of the spacecraft, and identify the stars so their position can be compared with their known absolute position from a star catalog. A star tracker may include a processor to identify stars by comparing the pattern of observed stars with the known pattern of stars in the sky.\n\n\n== History ==\nIn the 1950s and early 1960s, star trackers were an important part of early long-range ballistic missiles and cruise missiles, in the era when inertial navigation systems (INS) were not sufficiently accurate for intercontinental ranges.Consider a Cold War missile flying towards its target; it initially starts by flying northward, passes over the arctic, and then begins flying southward again. From the missile's perspective, stars behind it appear to move closer to the southern horizon while those in front are rising. Before flight, one can calculate the relative angle of a star based on where the missile should be at that instant if it is in the correct location. That can then be compared to the measured location to produce an "error off" signal that can be used to bring the missile back onto its correct trajectory.Due to the Earth's rotation, stars that are in a usable location change over the course of a day and the location of the target. Generally, a selection of several bright stars would be used and one would be selected at launch time. For guidance systems based solely on star tracking, some sort of recording mechanism, typically a magnetic tape, was pre-recorded with a signal that represented the angle of the star over the period of a day. At launch, the tape was forwarded to the appropriate time. During the flight, the signal on the tape was used to roughly position a telescope so it would point at the expected position of the star. At the telescope's focus was a photocell and some sort of signal-generator, typically a spinning disk known as a chopper. The chopper causes the image of the star to repeatedly appear and disappear on the photocell, producing a signal that was then smoothed to produce an alternating current output. The phase of that signal was compared to the one on the tape to produce a guidance signal.Star trackers were often combined with an INS. INS systems measure accelerations and integrate those over time to determine a velocity and, optionally, double-integrate to produce a location relative to its launch location. Even tiny measurement errors, when integrated, adds up to an appreciable error known as "drift". For instance, the N-1 navigation system developed for the SM-64 Navaho cruise missile drifted at a rate of 1 nautical mile per hour, meaning that after a two-hour flight the INS would be indicating a position 2 nautical miles (3.7 km; 2.3 mi) away from its actual location. This was outside the desired accuracy of about half a mile.\nIn the case of an INS, the magnetic tape can be removed and those signals instead provided by the INS. The rest of the system works as before; the signal from the INS roughly positions the star tracker, which then measures the actual location of the star and produces an error signal. This signal is then used to correct the position being generated from the INS, reducing the accumulated drift back to the limit of the accuracy of the tracker. These "stellar inertial" systems were especially common from the 1950s through the 1980s, although some systems use it to this day.\n\n\n== Current technology ==\nMany models are currently available. There also exist open projects designed to be used for the global CubeSat researchers and developers community.\nStar trackers, which require high sensitivity, may become confused by sunlight reflected from the spacecraft, or by exhaust gas plumes from the spacecraft thrusters (either sunlight reflection or contamination of the star tracker window). Star trackers are also susceptible to a variety of errors (low spatial frequency, high spatial frequency, temporal, ...) in addition to a variety of optical sources of error (spherical aberration, chromatic aberration, etc.). There are also many potential sources of confusion for the star identification algorithm (planets, comets, supernovae, the bimodal character of the point spread function for adjacent stars, other nearby satellites, point-source light pollution from large cities on Earth, ...). There are roughly 57 bright navigational stars in common use. However, for more complex missions, entire star field databases are used to determine spacecraft orientation. A typical star catalog for high-fidelity attitude determination is originated from a standard base catalog (for example from the United States Naval Observatory) and then filtered to remove problematic stars, for example due to apparent magnitude variability, color index uncertainty, or a location within the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram implying unreliability. These types of star catalogs can have thousands of stars stored in memory on board the spacecraft, or else processed using tools at the ground station and then uploaded.\n\n\n== See also ==\nCelestial navigation\nGoTo (telescopes)\nSun sensor\n\n\n== References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_tracker | 2022-10-19 00:58:42.472490 |
89 | Celestial navigation\nGoTo (telescopes)\nSun sensor | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_tracker | 2022-10-19 00:58:45.548139 |
90 | A star tracker is an optical device that measures the positions of stars using photocells or a camera.\nAs the positions of many stars have been measured by astronomers to a high degree of accuracy, a star tracker on a satellite or spacecraft may be used to determine the orientation (or attitude) of the spacecraft with respect to the stars. In order to do this, the star tracker must obtain an image of the stars, measure their apparent position in the reference frame of the spacecraft, and identify the stars so their position can be compared with their known absolute position from a star catalog. A star tracker may include a processor to identify stars by comparing the pattern of observed stars with the known pattern of stars in the sky.\n\n\n== History ==\nIn the 1950s and early 1960s, star trackers were an important part of early long-range ballistic missiles and cruise missiles, in the era when inertial navigation systems (INS) were not sufficiently accurate for intercontinental ranges.Consider a Cold War missile flying towards its target; it initially starts by flying northward, passes over the arctic, and then begins flying southward again. From the missile's perspective, stars behind it appear to move closer to the southern horizon while those in front are rising. Before flight, one can calculate the relative angle of a star based on where the missile should be at that instant if it is in the correct location. That can then be compared to the measured location to produce an "error off" signal that can be used to bring the missile back onto its correct trajectory.Due to the Earth's rotation, stars that are in a usable location change over the course of a day and the location of the target. Generally, a selection of several bright stars would be used and one would be selected at launch time. For guidance systems based solely on star tracking, some sort of recording mechanism, typically a magnetic tape, was pre-recorded with a signal that represented the angle of the star over the period of a day. At launch, the tape was forwarded to the appropriate time. During the flight, the signal on the tape was used to roughly position a telescope so it would point at the expected position of the star. At the telescope's focus was a photocell and some sort of signal-generator, typically a spinning disk known as a chopper. The chopper causes the image of the star to repeatedly appear and disappear on the photocell, producing a signal that was then smoothed to produce an alternating current output. The phase of that signal was compared to the one on the tape to produce a guidance signal.Star trackers were often combined with an INS. INS systems measure accelerations and integrate those over time to determine a velocity and, optionally, double-integrate to produce a location relative to its launch location. Even tiny measurement errors, when integrated, adds up to an appreciable error known as "drift". For instance, the N-1 navigation system developed for the SM-64 Navaho cruise missile drifted at a rate of 1 nautical mile per hour, meaning that after a two-hour flight the INS would be indicating a position 2 nautical miles (3.7 km; 2.3 mi) away from its actual location. This was outside the desired accuracy of about half a mile.\nIn the case of an INS, the magnetic tape can be removed and those signals instead provided by the INS. The rest of the system works as before; the signal from the INS roughly positions the star tracker, which then measures the actual location of the star and produces an error signal. This signal is then used to correct the position being generated from the INS, reducing the accumulated drift back to the limit of the accuracy of the tracker. These "stellar inertial" systems were especially common from the 1950s through the 1980s, although some systems use it to this day.\n\n\n== Current technology ==\nMany models are currently available. There also exist open projects designed to be used for the global CubeSat researchers and developers community.\nStar trackers, which require high sensitivity, may become confused by sunlight reflected from the spacecraft, or by exhaust gas plumes from the spacecraft thrusters (either sunlight reflection or contamination of the star tracker window). Star trackers are also susceptible to a variety of errors (low spatial frequency, high spatial frequency, temporal, ...) in addition to a variety of optical sources of error (spherical aberration, chromatic aberration, etc.). There are also many potential sources of confusion for the star identification algorithm (planets, comets, supernovae, the bimodal character of the point spread function for adjacent stars, other nearby satellites, point-source light pollution from large cities on Earth, ...). There are roughly 57 bright navigational stars in common use. However, for more complex missions, entire star field databases are used to determine spacecraft orientation. A typical star catalog for high-fidelity attitude determination is originated from a standard base catalog (for example from the United States Naval Observatory) and then filtered to remove problematic stars, for example due to apparent magnitude variability, color index uncertainty, or a location within the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram implying unreliability. These types of star catalogs can have thousands of stars stored in memory on board the spacecraft, or else processed using tools at the ground station and then uploaded.\n\n\n== See also ==\nCelestial navigation\nGoTo (telescopes)\nSun sensor\n\n\n== References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_tracker | 2022-10-19 03:03:35.059016 |
91 | Celestial navigation\nGoTo (telescopes)\nSun sensor | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_tracker | 2022-10-19 03:03:39.599730 |
92 | Film | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Commission_for_Culture_and_the_Arts | 2022-10-19 03:05:22.704793 |