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Raising Consciousness of Gender Roles Through Cross-Cultural Analysis

Japan is in the midst of a major sociocultural shift in gender roles and, as a result, many women are choosing less traditional paths for their lives (Lachkar, 2014). However, traditional views of women’s roles are slow to change (Yamamoto & Ran, 2014). Although more and more Japanese women are attending college to achieve their professional goals, many still express ambivalence about balancing career and marriage in their own lives (Anzai & Paik, 2012), and only a small percentage enter leadership positions due to a number of sociocultural and professional barriers (World Economic Forum, 2014). Providing opportunities for women to engage in cultural self-examination and to share personal experiences and perceptions of gender role expectations can lead to consciousness-raising and provide an avenue for creating change at the individual (and social) level (Kawano, 2011; Sowards & Renegar, 2009). I created a course using consciousness-raising strategies to help (a) increase Japanese women’s awareness of the social construction of gender roles, (b) apply feminist theories and research to their own lives, and (c) provide strategies for developing skills to increase their confidence in their potential as leaders. The 1999 Basic Law for a Gender Equal Society called for equal opportunities for Japanese women and men, the prohibition of gender-based discrimination, and policy changes that would promote these goals (Usui, Rose, & Kageyama, 2003; Yamamoto & Ran, 2014). This was partly in response to the changing economy in Japan of that time. Since then, Japanese culture has become more supportive of women in the workforce. Following the global financial crisis of 2008– 2009, it became even more necessary for women to continue to work after marriage to supplement their husband’s income (Yamamoto & Ran, 2014). Japanese women are now more likely to prioritize career interests and financial independence above both traditional gender expectations and marriage (Anzai & Paik, 2012). However, women are still underrepresented in many professions and leadership roles (Yamamoto & Ran, 2014). The World Economic Forum (2014) describes several barriers to women’s workplace parity in Japan, including persisting cultural expectations that women are solely responsible for caring for the home and family, a lack of adequate access to childcare, and a lack of female role models in management. The ideology of “good wife, wise mother” (ryosai kenbo) has influenced educational and employment policies for generations, keeping women’s and men’s lives in separate spheres of home and work (Usui et al., 2003). Some companies are still unwilling to invest in mentoring women as leaders because they assume women will leave to marry and raise a family. Similarly, cultural norms psychologically affect women’s and men’s beliefs, attitudes, and behavior. In Japan, leadership traits (e.g., dominance, competence) are more closely associated with (and accepted in) men, while women are expected to be nurturing and communal (Usui et al., 2003). Such cultural pressures powerfully affect women’s professional aspirations and their access to leadership positions (Usui et al., 2003). Cultural self-examination can be a powerful tool toward raising consciousness through questioning societal assumptions people take for granted (Ivers, 2012). Consciousness-raising enables a critical analysis of one’s culture through sharing stories of personal and social oppression; it does not have to occur solely through small groups or in-person discussions (Sowards & Renegar, 2009). Books, articles, and media also can provide diverse perspectives and experiences, allowing consciousness-raising in a classroom setting without requiring that all students share private stories (which may sometimes be uncomfortable or difficult to share among strangers). In addition, sharing stories about experiences that arise from different cultural backgrounds allows people to compare their own experiences to others, critically