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Foundational Issues in the Philosophy of Language

Linguistic expressions are meaningful. Sentences, built from words and phrases, are used to communicate information about objects, properties and events in the world. In philosophy of language, the study of linguistic meaning is central. 1. Meaning and communication: Semantics and pragmatics Just connecting meaning with communication does not yet tell us which properties of expressions and their uses are to be brought under the umbrella of linguistic meaning. For there is often an intuitive distinction to be drawn between the message that a speaker communicates and the meaning of the sentence that the speaker uses. Offered coffee after dinner, Nigel may utter the sentence, 'Coffee keeps me awake', and thereby decline the offer. But declining an offer is no part of the linguistic meaning of the sentence. In a different context – imagine that there is an after-dinner speaker who is known to be boring but that the occasion demands that people not doze off – the very same sentence could be used to accept an offer of coffee. In yet another context, the sentence might be used in a simple factual report about factors that exacerbate insomnia. It is usual, in philosophy of language, to distinguish between properties that are strictly aspects of an expression's literal linguistic meaning and other properties of the expression or its use that may contribute to the message that is communicated. The study of literal linguistic meaning is semantics. The study of the use of language to communicate messages – very often, messages that go far beyond the literal meanings of the expressions used – is pragmatics. As a rough guide to the semantics-pragmatics distinction, we can say that semantics is concerned with the properties of expressions that help to determine the conditions under which an utterance would be literally true, rather than false. In contrast, pragmatics focuses on the conditions under which an utterance would be helpful, rather than misleading, or more generally appropriate, rather than inappropriate. The semantic properties of the English words 'coffee' and so on, and the way that the words are put together, determine that an utterance of the sentence 'Coffee keeps me awake' is true under the conditions that coffee keeps the speaker awake, and false otherwise. So if coffee keeps Nigel awake then his utterance is true. But an utterance that is true may be misleading. Late in the evening, with no after-dinner speaker scheduled, Nigel's utterance …