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Number and Size of Offspring

Offspring number and size are two of the most variable life-history traits. Among species, much of this variability can be attributed to genetic, developmental, physiological, or structural constraints. Some trait combinations are not possible because of differences associated with a species’ evolutionary history. Substantial variation in propagule number and size can exist among populations of the same species, generating questions concerning the adaptive significance of this variability. The most influential models are those attributed to Lack on clutch size and to Smith and Fretwell on offspring size. Fundamental to both sets of models is a trade-off between offspring number and parental investment per offspring. When offspring survival or fitness continuously varies with offspring size, the fitness of the parent depends on both offspring size and the number of offspring of that size that the parent can produce. If offspring survival is independent of offspring size, parental fitness is maximized when individuals maximize the production of minimally sized propagules.