{'fraction_non_alphanumeric': 0.015006002400960384, 'fraction_numerical': 0.0, 'mean_word_length': 5.694779116465863, 'pattern_counts': {'":': 0, '<': 0, '<?xml version=': 0, '>': 0, 'https://': 0, 'lorem ipsum': 0, 'www.': 0, 'xml': 0}, 'pii_count': 0, 'substrings_counts': 0, 'word_list_counts': {'cursed_substrings.json': 0, 'profanity_word_list.json': 0, 'sexual_word_list.json': 0, 'zh_pornsignals.json': 0}}
A Three-Dimensional Model for Evaluating Individual Differences in Tempo and Tempo Variation in Musical Performance

People differ from each other, and this includes performers of music. The study of individual differences is well established in many social science disciplines but has been largely neglected in music performance research. To what extent do performers play differently from each other? How can these differences be concisely described and precisely assessed? Questions like these remain unanswered. Focusing on tempo and tempo variation in performance, this article contributes to knowledge by describing a well-defined, clearly illustrated and systematically classified taxonomy for identifying differences in tempo and tempo variation. Based on findings from past theoretical and empirical research on tempo in performance, it presents a model whereby performers’ individual differences in tempo and tempo variation can be evaluated. The model identifies six variables representing three dimensions of tempo and tempo variation: basic tempo, global tempo variation, and local tempo variation. It has the potential for providing researchers with a toolbox for analyzing differences among individual performers’ use of tempo and tempo variation by assessing the extent to which each of the variables is embodied in specific performances. Evgeny Kissin’s and Lars Vogt’s recorded performances are used to illustrate how the model will perform its role. Researchers could test the model further by analyzing a larger repertoire and/or carrying out experiments to generate more comprehensive knowledge about individual differences in performance style.