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Adelbert Ames and the Dartmouth Eye Institute.

The striking of friendships and the meetings of minds have yielded advances in many fields. For example, there is the meeting of Frans Cornelius Donders and Albrecht von Graefe in London in 1851, which joined knowledge of physics and optics to clinical ophthalmology. Another gathering occurred in Hanover, New Hampshire, early in the twentieth century. The founder of the Dartmouth Eye Institute (DEI), Adelbert Ames II (Figs. 1–3), drew leaders in ophthalmology to this rural hamlet and sparked excitement in vision research. The story of the DEI stands as an example of collaboration among investigators from multiple fields that began as one individual’s quest to understand what influences how we see. From 1921 to 1947, Ames brought together, among others, Walter Lancaster, Kenneth Ogle, Arthur Linksz, Paul Boeder, Hermann Burian, and Alfred Bielschowsky. Little evidence marks its erstwhile prominence, but the DEI used a collection of diversely trained researchers committed to furthering the understanding of vision and perception. Many of the topics explored by this fortuitous assemblage of people flourish in modern vision research. Ames came from a distinguished family. His maternal grandfather, Benjamin Butler, was a general and governor of Massachusetts. General Butler ran unsuccessfully for President in 1884. His father, Adelbert Ames I, had been a general in the Civil War and later a Mississippi governor and United States senator. As a Harvard undergraduate, Ames took courses from William James and George Santayana. After completing Harvard Law School, he became disillusioned with legal practice and became an artist. Inspired by his sisters, who were painters, he tried “to make exact color reproductions of scenes” (1). With his sister Blanche Ames, he devised a color notation system consisting of more than 3,300 different color variations (1). (By comparison, the influential system created by the artist Albert Henry Munsell, and still used by clinicians and artists, contains only 1200 color variations [2].) While traveling around New England painting landscapes and sculpting, Ames’ analytical mind contemplated the relationship between what one sees and what can be represented in art. How, he wondered, does the visual system reproduce the reality of the environment? To approach the problem, he sought to understand the basics of image formation in the eye by studying its optical