{'fraction_non_alphanumeric': 0.019632678910702975, 'fraction_numerical': 0.0, 'mean_word_length': 5.196078431372549, 'pattern_counts': {'":': 0, '<': 0, '<?xml version=': 0, '>': 0, 'https://': 0, 'lorem ipsum': 0, 'www.': 0, 'xml': 0}, 'pii_count': 0, 'substrings_counts': 0, 'word_list_counts': {'cursed_substrings.json': 0, 'profanity_word_list.json': 0, 'sexual_word_list.json': 0, 'zh_pornsignals.json': 0}}
Lymphoid organ dendritic cells: beyond the Langerhans cells paradigm

The immune system has developed mechanisms to detect and initiate responses to a continual barrage of immunological challenges. Dendritic cells (DC), a heterogeneous population of leucocytes, play a major role as immunosurveillance agents. To accomplish this function, DC are equipped with highly efficient mechanisms to detect pathogens, to capture, process and present antigens, and to initiate T‐cell responses. These mechanisms are developmentally regulated during the DC life cycle in a process termed ‘maturation’, which was originally defined using Langerhans cells (LC), a DC type of the epidermis. LC exist in the skin in an immature state dedicated to capturing antigens, and in the subcutaneous lymph nodes in a mature state dedicated to presenting those antigens to T cells. The phenotypic changes undergone by LC during maturation, and the correlation of these changes with tissue localization, have been generally considered a paradigm for all DC. However, studies of the multiple DC types found in the lymphoid organs of mice and humans have revealed that most DC subsets do not follow the life cycle typified by LC. In this review we discuss the limitations of the ‘LC paradigm’ and suggest that this model should be revised to accommodate the heterogeneity of the DC system. We also discuss the implications of the maturational status of the DC subsets contained in the lymphoid organs for their putative roles in the induction of immune responses and the maintenance of peripheral tolerance.