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Operations on hermaphrodites and castration in Byzantine times (324-1453 AD).

The authors present and comment on the surgical methods performed on hermaphrodites and for castration, which are unique in the medical bibliography of Byzantium and were described by the famous physician of the 7th century, Paul of Aegina. The latter describes the techniques of reconstruction of hermaphrodites learned from the now lost work of the great surgeon of the 1st century AD, Leonidas from Alexandria. Paul of Aegina presents, with some ethical reservation the scientific methods of castration used by surgeons only in cases of acts of God or for serious health reasons, where they were obliged to operate. The authors furthermore present the legal position of the state and the church in relation to a phenomenon so widespread in Byzantium as castration.