{'fraction_non_alphanumeric': 0.020487264673311186, 'fraction_numerical': 0.0, 'mean_word_length': 5.570909090909091, 'pattern_counts': {'":': 0, '<': 0, '<?xml version=': 0, '>': 0, 'https://': 0, 'lorem ipsum': 0, 'www.': 0, 'xml': 0}, 'pii_count': 0, 'substrings_counts': 0, 'word_list_counts': {'cursed_substrings.json': 0, 'profanity_word_list.json': 0, 'sexual_word_list.json': 0, 'zh_pornsignals.json': 0}}
Nonspatial and Subdivision-Specific Working Memory Deficits after Selective Lesions of the Avian Prefrontal Cortex

Association areas in the avian forebrain are shown to subserve higher cognitive functions, including working memory. One of these areas, the neostriatum caudolaterale (NCL) of pigeons, has been functionally compared with the mammalian prefrontal cortex (PFC) because of its prominent role in spatial delay and reversal tasks and its innervation by the dopaminergic system that modulates these functions. However, whereas the PFC maintains in working memory information of different domains, the essential role of the NCL in working memory has been demonstrated only for spatial tasks. To investigate whether the avian NCL is also crucial for nonspatial working memory functions, pigeons were tested in an object-related (color) delayed matching-to-sample (DMTS) task. Bilateral lesions were placed in the entire, dorsal, or ventral NCL to test for possible functional subdivisions that were proposed to exist on the basis of neurochemical and behavioral data. Pigeons with total, dorsal, and ventral NCL lesions showed significant deficits in their DMTS performance, whereas controls were not impaired. Thus, the avian NCL is critically involved in nonspatial working memory processes. Recovery from performance deficits was observed in animals with ventral or total NCL lesions, whereas animals with dorsal NCL lesions showed no improvement. Ventral NCL may mediate perseverative behavior, whereas dorsal NCL might be involved in active working memory. Differences in the connections of these subdivisions with striatal areas and other association areas in the frontomedial forebrain underline functional differences. The data indicate a possible segregation of functions in the avian NCL.