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Attempting to improve logical thinking in school history

There have been a number of attempts recently to apply Piagetian-derived criteria to children's understanding of school history (see, for example, Bell, 1965; Hallam, 1966; McNally, 1970). Such attempts pose the problem whether it is appropriate to adapt criteria derived from scientific experiments (Inhelder and Piaget, 1958) to a subject such as history. There is not room here for an extended treatment of such a complex issue (Hallam, 1975, Part IV) but it can be argued that the criteria for the assessment of children's responses in Table 1 are appropriate for history and the sciences, since both branches of knowledge rest upon an understanding of the logic of classes and relations and both deal essentially in probabilities rather than certainties (Elton, 1967, p. 52; Marwick, 1970, p. 99), using inductive and hypothetico-deductive reasoning (d. Kitson Clark, 1967, pp. 26-7).