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Westernization and social transformations in Chinese music education, 1895-1949

Introduction Fundamental assumptions concerning the function of music education have remained constant in China since the time of Confucius (551–479 BC), who recognized that music education could help the government to achieve social harmony at a time when Imperial China was torn apart by internal dissent during the era of the Warring States (481–256 BC). Confucius was concerned with the correct behaviour of the individual within the highly formalized social hierarchy of traditional China, and thought that music could strengthen the bonds of kinship and thereby guarantee general social stability. To this end he set didactic poems to music, such as in his ‘Book of Songs’ (Shijing or, also named Classic of Odes), which mentions the cultivation of the ‘jun’ (gentleman) according to the Five Virtues of benevolence, justice, propriety, wisdom and sincerity. The ‘Book of Songs’ drawn from the region north of the Yellow River was a collection of 305 ancient poems from the Zhou dynasty (1027?–256 BC), including folk songs, ceremonial songs, love songs and sacrificial songs. These songs formed the basis of self-control and were believed to improve the behaviour of people. It was for this reason that Confucius gave educational priority to Music, alongside Rites, Archery, Charioteering, Writing and Numbers. Music was considered in traditional Chinese society as one of the four fundamental means towards social unity together with morals, law and politics, and, after the manner of Confucius, successive emperors used specially selected music to promote social