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Cuticular hydrocarbon composition does not allow Harmonia axyridis males to identify the mating status of sexual partners

Males of polyandrous species have to overcome sperm competition. They should select their mate based on the reproductive status of the female to increase their own fitness. Because the sexual behavior of lady beetles relies on semiochemicals, with cuticular hydrocarbons (CHCs) being used for mate recognition, we developed and tested two hypotheses. First, we hypothesized that the cuticular hydrocarbon profile qualitatively and quantitatively differs between virgin and mated Harmonia axyridis females, regardless of the color morph. Second, we hypothesized that males discriminate virgin and mated females, preferring copulating with virgin females, rather than previously mated ones, to avoid sperm competition and subsequently