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Holism: A Missing Link in Individualism-Collectivism Research

Studies on Individualism-Collectivism (IND-COL) have documented results contradicting Hofstede's theory. We attribute these theory-data inconsistencies to construct underspecification. Both IND and COL are confounded with similar yet disparate sub-constructs. In the main, this study illustrates that the West and the East do manifest opposite cultural values as Hofstede had initially conceptualized, and this can be empirically observable when utilizing more refined constructs and measurement instruments. This study (a) proposes holism, not collectivism, as a cultural fundamental of East Asia, (b) separates personalism from individualism, and (c) breaks collectivism down into Western group collectivism and Eastern relational collectivism. A cross-cultural study with 152 Korean and 171 American students was conducted. Results indicate that individualism and holism constitute elements of the most basic cultural layer while collectivism belongs to a peripheral one. Koreans were much more holistic than Americans, who were significantly more individualistic than Koreans. Group collectivism was more pronounced in the U.S. while relational collectivism tended to prevail in Korea. In both cultures, collectivism was influenced by their respective cultural fundamentals: Individualism better predicted collectivism in the U.S. while holism did so in Korea.