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Misaligned Maps Lead to Predictable Errors

Three experiments were conducted to investigate the ability of subjects to make judgments of direction when using misaligned maps. Two hypotheses were proposed: (i) errors would fall into two lawful categories—mirror-image errors and alignment errors; (ii) the effect of map orientation would generalize to a different mode of responding than has been used in previous studies. Support for both hypotheses was obtained. The results are discussed in terms of the mental processes used to align maps to spaces, and the task demands required by different response modes.