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A Novel Mitochondrial Genome Fragmentation Pattern in the Buffalo Louse Haematopinus tuberculatus (Psocodea: Haematopinidae)

Sucking lice are obligate ectoparasites of mammalian hosts, causing serious public health problems and economic losses worldwide. It is well known that sucking lice have fragmented mitochondrial (mt) genomes, but many remain undetermined. To better understand patterns of mt genome fragmentation in the sucking lice, we sequenced the mt genome of the buffalo louse Haematopinus tuberculatus using next-generation sequencing (NGS). The mt genome of H. tuberculatus has ten circular minichromosomes containing a total of 37 genes. Each minichromosome is 2.9–5.0 kb long and carries one to eight genes plus one large non-coding region. The number of mt minichromosomes of H. tuberculatus (ten) is different from those of congeneric species (horse louse H. asini, domestic pig louse H. suis and wild pig louse H. apri) and other sucking lice. Two events (gene translocation and merger of mt minichromosome) are observed in Haematopinus. Compared to other studies, our phylogeny generated from mt genome datasets showed a different topology, suggesting that inclusion of data other than mt genomes would be required to resolve phylogeny of sucking lice. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a ten mt minichromosomes genome in sucking lice, which opens a new outlook into unexplored mt genome fragmentation patterns in sucking lice.

To further explore mt genome evolution in Haematopinus, we used next-generation sequencing (NGS) on H. tuberculatus. We found that the mt genome of H. tuberculatus is fragmented into ten circular minichromosomes. We analyzed mt genome fragmentation pattern and phylogeny, as well as variation in mt minichromosome composition and recombination with in the genus Haematopinus. Our results are invaluable in understanding the evolution of fragmented mt genomes in the sucking lice.

General Features of the mt Genome of the Buffalo Louse H. tuberculatus
Sequencing the H. tuberculatus genome produced 3.4 Gb of Illumina short-read sequence data, a total of 6,710,412 × 2 raw reads. After quality filtration, 3,841,215 × 2 clean reads were suitable for assembly of the mt genome. Assembling these sequence-reads into contigs, identified all 37 mt genes including 13 protein-coding genes, 22 tRNA genes and two rRNA genes, typical of bilateral animals. There are ten minichromosomes ( Figure 1; Table 1); each minichromosome is 2.9-5.0 kb in size and consists of a coding region and one non-coding regions (NCR) ( Table 1). The coding regions have 1-8 genes each and vary in size from 67 bp to 2627 bp (Table 1). All genes are in identical orientation relative to the transcription origin except trnT, nad1 and trnQ ( Figure 1). The raw data (BioProject accession number: PRJNA883441) and nucleotide sequences (GenBank accession numbers: ON416547-56) of H. tuberculatus have been deposited in the NCBI database.
The NCR is composed largely of motifs conserved between different minichromosomes [24], and this region includes the D-loop which is involved in DNA replication and the initiation of transcription [25]. We assembled the full-length NCRs for all mt minichromosomes of H. tuberculatus, which ranged from 2280 bp (trnH-nad5-trnF-nad6 minichromosome) to 2901 bp (trnR-nad4L minichromosome) in size ( Table 1). The longest NCR (2901 bp) in the buffalo louse H. tuberculatus is shorter than that in the horse louse H. anisi (3264 bp) [16], while it is longer than those of other sucking lice. As in most parvorder Anoplura, there is a GC-rich motif (70 bp, 55.7% C and G) downstream of the 3 -end of the coding region in each NCR. Remarkably, the AT-rich motif (54 bp, 94.4% A and T) is in the middle of the NCR, rather than upstream of the 5 -end of coding region, differing from other parvorder Anoplura [11][12][13]. Each minichromosome has a coding region and a non-coding region (NCR, in black). The names and transcript orientation of genes are indicated in the coding region and the minichromosomes are in alphabetical order of protein-coding genes and rRNA genes. Abbreviations: atp6 and atp8, ATP synthase F0 subunits 6 and 8; cob, cytochrome b; cox1-3, cytochrome c oxidase subunits 1-3; nad1-6 and nad4L, NADH dehydrogenase subunits 1-6 and 4L; rrnS and rrnL, small and large subunits of ribosomal RNA. tRNA genes are indicated with their single-letter abbreviations of the corresponding amino acids. The NCR is composed largely of motifs conserved between different minichromosomes [24], and this region includes the D-loop which is involved in DNA replication and the initiation of transcription [25]. We assembled the full-length NCRs for all mt minichro-

Numbers of Minichromosomes among Parvorder Anoplura
All sucking lice sequenced to date have fragmented mt genome with variable numbers of, i.e., 9,11,12,14,18 or 20 minichromosomes. All mt genes have been identified in each of the 13 complete mt genomes, each circular minichromosome comprises one coding region and one NCR ( Figure 2). An additional nine incomplete mt genomes of sucking lice are shown in Figure S1. Previous studies have suggested that fragmented mt minichromosomes are under strong selection to remain functional, and the related function may be affected along with an increased number of mt minichromosomes [26,27]. In the present study, we identified a novel pattern in the mt genome of H. tuberculatus with ten minichromosomes. Previous studies have indicated that the number of mt minichromosomes is evolutionarily unstable across Anoplura, even between congeneric species [12,17,19]. The substantial variation in the number of mt minichromosomes among Anoplura suggests that the process of mt genome fragmentation is a continuous process.
All sucking lice sequenced to date have fragmented mt genome with variable numbers of, i.e., 9,11,12,14,18 or 20 minichromosomes. All mt genes have been identified in each of the 13 complete mt genomes, each circular minichromosome comprises one coding region and one NCR ( Figure 2). An additional nine incomplete mt genomes of sucking lice are shown in Figure S1. Previous studies have suggested that fragmented mt minichromosomes are under strong selection to remain functional, and the related function may be affected along with an increased number of mt minichromosomes [26,27]. In the present study, we identified a novel pattern in the mt genome of H. tuberculatus with ten minichromosomes. Previous studies have indicated that the number of mt minichromosomes is evolutionarily unstable across Anoplura, even between congeneric species [12,17,19]. The substantial variation in the number of mt minichromosomes among Anoplura suggests that the process of mt genome fragmentation is a continuous process.

Variation in mt Minichromosomal Composition among Haematopinus Lice
H. suis, H. apri and H. asini each have nine mt minichromosomes [13,16]; however, H. tuberculatus has ten. The distribution of genes across the nine minichromosomes is identical between H. suis and H. apri [13]. Six minichromosomes in H. tuberculatus have the same gene content and gene order as their counterparts in H. asini, H. suis and H. apri, but the remaining differs [13,16]. In H. suis/apri, one minichromosome carries four genes, i.e.,
H. apri, trnM is along with trnR-nad4L and nad6. These results clearly show the substantial variation in mt karyotype among Haematopinus species. Several previous studies compared mt genomes between the lice within the same genus, and showed substantial variation in mt karyotypes [14,19,[20][21][22][23][24]. Taken together, these studies indicate that intra-genus variation in mt minichromosome composition is common in lice.

Recombination of mt Minichromosomes in the Haematopinus Lice
Recombination has been proposed as a possible mechanism contributing to the evolution of mt genome fragmentation across animal clades [27]. Long identical nucleotide sequences ranging from 14 to 133 bp are shared between mt genes, providing evidence for recombination between mt minichromosomes in sucking lice [11][12][13][14][15][16][17]. Similarly, seven

Recombination of mt Minichromosomes in the Haematopinus Lice
Recombination has been proposed as a possible mechanism contributing to the evolution of mt genome fragmentation across animal clades [27]. Long identical nucleotide sequences ranging from 14 to 133 bp are shared between mt genes, providing evidence for recombination between mt minichromosomes in sucking lice [11][12][13][14][15][16][17]. Similarly, seven stretches of identical nucleotide sequences, 7 to 32 bp long, were found between five pairs of mt genes in the buffalo louse (Table 2). trnL 1 and trnL 2 share three stretches of identical sequences of 7, 11 and 25 bp long. Meanwhile, in pig lice, the two genes share 9, 10 and 16 bp long identical sequences, whereas in horse louse these two genes share 15 bp long identical sequences with one another (Table 2). rrnL and rrnS share two stretches of identical sequences, 10 and 33 bp long, in H. asini; however, in H. suis, H. apri and H. tuberculatus, these two genes share only one stretch, 9 to 11 bp long of identical sequence, suggesting that recombination is occasional (Table 2). Previous studies found that recombination among tRNA genes could affect tRNA secondary structures [12,16]. Among Haematopinus, in addition to the pair of tRNA genes mentioned above, trnP and trnT share longer identical sequences than expected in H. suis (26 bp), H. apri (26 bp) and H. asini (27 bp), respectively. Nevertheless, in H. tuberculatus, the two genes only share 7 bp long identical sequences as other sucking lice do (Table 2). Among protein-coding genes, atp8 and atp6 in H. tuberculatus share a 32 bp identical sequence, three to four times more than expected by chance (Table 2), nad4 and cox1 share a 19 bp identical sequence in H. tuberculatus, and share 12 and 18 bp identical sequences in H. suis, but do not share longer-than expected identical sequences in H. asini and H. apri. Meanwhile, nad4 and cytb share 17 bp in H. tuberculatus; and 20 bp in H. asini, but no longer-than expected identical sequences are seen in H. suis and H. apri, nor in other sucking lice (Table 2). There is a 14 bp identical sequence shared by nad4L and trnV genes in H. tuberculatus, which is approximately twice as in other sucking lice. These results indicate that recombination is a likely cause of shared identical sequences between mt genes in Haematopinus lice.

Phylogenetic Relationships
In the present study, the monophyly of Haematopinus (Haematopinidae), Polyplax (Polyplacidae) and Hoplopleura (Hoplopleuridae) was strongly supported by Bayesian inference (BI) analysis (Bpp = 0.9) and maximum likelihood (ML) analysis (Bv = 100) ( Figure  5). The family Haematopinidae was sister to a clade of the families Polyplacidae + Hoplopleuridae to the exclusion of the families Pediculidae, Pthiridae and Pedicinidae with strong BI support (Bpp = 1.0) and moderate ML support (Bv = 49) ( Figure 5). These results are consistent with those observed in the previous studies using nuclear genomic sequences [28,29]. In employing mt genomic datasets, however, several studies have indicated that the family Haematopinidae and families Pediculidae + Pthiridae + Pedicinidae were more closely related than to the families Polyplacidae and Hoplopleuridae with

Phylogenetic Relationships
In the present study, the monophyly of Haematopinus (Haematopinidae), Polyplax (Polyplacidae) and Hoplopleura (Hoplopleuridae) was strongly supported by Bayesian inference (BI) analysis (Bpp = 0.9) and maximum likelihood (ML) analysis (Bv = 100) ( Figure 5). The family Haematopinidae was sister to a clade of the families Polyplacidae + Hoplopleuridae to the exclusion of the families Pediculidae, Pthiridae and Pedicinidae with strong BI support (Bpp = 1.0) and moderate ML support (Bv = 49) ( Figure 5). These results are consistent with those observed in the previous studies using nuclear genomic sequences [28,29]. In employing mt genomic datasets, however, several studies have indicated that the family Haematopinidae and families Pediculidae + Pthiridae + Pedicinidae were more closely related than to the families Polyplacidae and Hoplopleuridae with strong BI support (Bpp = 1.0), but weak support in ML analyses [19,21,30]. The mt genome is a valuable genetic marker for phylogenetic and evolutionary studies of different organisms because of its lacking of recombination, low mutation rate, and matrilineal inheritance [31][32][33]. However, recombination is found frequently in the fragmented mt genomes of Anoplura lice [27]. Recombination in mt genomes has substantial effects on phylogenetic and evolutionary studies that utilize mt genes [34][35][36]. The traditional methods for phylogenetic analysis are based on the assumption that mtDNA does not recombine; ignoring the occurrence of recombination can lead to incorrect phylogenetic reconstruction and positive selection analyses [37,38]. Collectively, our data along with others suggest that the deeper relationships among families within the parvorder Anoplura are challenge to resolve due to occurrence of recombination. Consequently, inclusion of data other than mt genomes would be greatly helpful in order to resolve phylogeny of sucking lice. strong BI support (Bpp = 1.0), but weak support in ML analyses [19,21,30]. The mt genome is a valuable genetic marker for phylogenetic and evolutionary studies of different organisms because of its lacking of recombination, low mutation rate, and matrilineal inheritance [31][32][33]. However, recombination is found frequently in the fragmented mt genomes of Anoplura lice [27]. Recombination in mt genomes has substantial effects on phylogenetic and evolutionary studies that utilize mt genes [34][35][36]. The traditional methods for phylogenetic analysis are based on the assumption that mtDNA does not recombine; ignoring the occurrence of recombination can lead to incorrect phylogenetic reconstruction and positive selection analyses [37,38]. Collectively, our data along with others suggest that the deeper relationships among families within the parvorder Anoplura are challenge to resolve due to occurrence of recombination. Consequently, inclusion of data other than mt genomes would be greatly helpful in order to resolve phylogeny of sucking lice.

Sample Collection and DNA Extraction
Adult lice H. tuberculatus were collected from naturally infected buffalo Bubalus bubalis in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. They were identified to species morphologically [1], and stored in 100% (v/v) ethanol at −40 °C after five washes in physiological saline. Total genomic DNA was extracted from ten individual lice (five females and five males) using the DNeasy Tissue Kit (Promega, Madison, USA) according to the manufacturer's protocol. The molecular identity of each sucking louse as H. tuberculatus was further verified by PCR-based sequencing of regions in the mt cox1 and rrnS genes as previously described [20]. The cox1 gene sequences of H. tuberculatus were 100% identical to that of H. tuberculatus (GenBank accession no: EU375757) from Bubalus bubalis in the United Kingdom.

Sample Collection and DNA Extraction
Adult lice H. tuberculatus were collected from naturally infected buffalo Bubalus bubalis in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. They were identified to species morphologically [1], and stored in 100% (v/v) ethanol at −40 • C after five washes in physiological saline. Total genomic DNA was extracted from ten individual lice (five females and five males) using the DNeasy Tissue Kit (Promega, Madison, USA) according to the manufacturer's protocol. The molecular identity of each sucking louse as H. tuberculatus was further verified by PCR-based sequencing of regions in the mt cox1 and rrnS genes as previously described [20]. The cox1 gene sequences of H. tuberculatus were 100% identical to that of H. tuberculatus (GenBank accession no: EU375757) from Bubalus bubalis in the United Kingdom.

Sequencing and Assembling
DNA concentration of each sample was determined using the Qubit system (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). Total DNA sequencing was performed by Novogene Bioinformatics Technology Co., Ltd. (Tianjing, China) using the Illumina HiSeq2500 platform (Illumina, San Diego, CA, USA) to produce 2 × 250 bp paired-end reads and raw data were recorded in FASTQ format. The raw reads were filtered to remove containing adaptor sequences and low-quality reads (the 'N' percent of one end > 5%, average quality score Q < 20 and length < 75 bp after trimming) using Trimmomatic v.0.32 [39]. The mt cox1 and rrnS sequences of H. tuberculatus were used as the initial references to de novo assembled the clean reads using Geneious Prime 2020 (www.geneious.com, accessed on 1 November 2021). The assembly parameters were: minimum overlap identity 99%, maximum 3% gaps per read, maximum gap 5 bp and minimum overlap 150 bp. A circular minichromosome was identified if both ends of a contig overlapped. Previous studies [18,19] showed that the NCR are highly conserved among the mt minichromosomes of a sucking louse. The conserved NCR sequences were identified between the mt cox1 and rrnS minichromosomes and were used as references to align the clean read sequence dataset. This allowed us to extract sequence reads derived from the two ends of the coding regions of all other mt minichromosomes. We then assembled all minichromosomes individually in full length using the same method stated above for mt cox1 and rrnS minichromosome assembly.

Verification of mt Minichromosomes
The size and circular organization of each mt minichromosome of H. tuberculatus were verified by long PCR using specific primers (Table S1), which were designed from the coding region of each minichromosome using the Primer Premier 5.0 (Premier Biosoft Interpairs, Palo Alto, CA, USA). The forward primer and reverse primer of each pair were next to each other with a small gap or no gap in between. PCR with these primers amplified each circular minichromosome in full or near full size if it had a circular organization ( Figure S2). These positive amplicons were also sequenced with Illumina HiSeq2500 platform as described above. To obtain full-length and accurate sequences of the NCR of the all minichromosomes, we have re-assembled the NCR of each mt minichromosome using these obtained sequences according to the same method.

Annotation and Visualization
Genes were predicted with MITOS web server (http://mitos.bioinf.uni-leipzig.de/ index.py, accessed on 5 November 2021) [40] and manually curated. Sequences of each protein-coding gene were then aligned against the corresponding gene of H. suis [13] and H. asini [16] using the MAFFT 7.263 software [41] to further identify gene boundaries. The location of protein-coding genes was further confirmed in ORFfinder (https://www. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/orffinder/, accessed on 5 November 2021). Amino acid sequences of each protein-coding genes were inferred using MEGA 11 [42], and deduced amino acid sequences were used in BLAST searches of the protein database of GenBank. tRNA genes were identified using the program tRNAscan-SE [43] and ARWEN [44], and rRNA genes were identified with BLAST searches of the NCBI database and in comparison with alignments from H. suis [13] and H. asini [16]. The circular map of H. tuberculatus mt genome was illustrated using Microsoft PowerPoint v.2021.

Phylogenetic Analysis
Amino acid sequences inferred from the nucleotide sequences of 11 mt protein-coding genes common (nad2 and nad5 excluded because these genes are unidentified in H. kitti and H. elephantis) for all sucking lice (Table 3), using the elephant louse species, H. elephantis (GenBank: KF933032-41) as an outgroup [45]. The deduced amino acid sequences were aligned individually using MAFFT 7.122 and concatenated to form a single dataset; ambiguously aligned regions were excluded using Gblocks 0.91b using default parameters [46]. Phylogenetic analyses were conducted using two methods: BI and ML. BI was carried out using MrBayes 3.2.6 [47]. The most suitable model (MtArt) of evolution was selected by ProtTest 3.4 [48] at the default setting based on the Akaike information criterion (AIC). As MtArt model is a very recent addition to the models commonly used, we could not implement it in the current version of MrBayes, which used the best scoring alternative model MtREV. Four independent Markov chains (three heated and one cold) were run simultaneously for 1,000,000 metropolis coupled MCMC generations, sampling a tree every 100 generations. The first 2500 trees represented burn-in, and the remaining trees were tested for stability of likelihood values and used to compute Bayesian posterior probabilities (Bpp). We assumed that stationarity had been reached when the estimated sample size (ESS) was greater than 100, the potential scale reduction factor (PSRF) approached 1.0 and the average standard deviation of split frequencies (ASDSF) was < 0.01. ML was conducted with IQ-TREE v.2.1.3 [49]. The "Auto" option was set under the best evolutionary models, and the ML trees were constructed using an ultrafast bootstrap approximation approach with 10,000 replicates. The Bootstrap value (Bv) was calculated using 100 bootstrap replicates. Phylogenetic trees were drawn using FigTree v.1.42.

Conclusions
The newly-described mt genome of H. tuberculatus presented here has a novel mt genome fragmentation pattern, differing from other three Haematopinus lice, proved our hypothesis. Our findings indicate that recombination plays a major role in generating the variation in the composition of mt minichromosomes among Haematopinus lice. Compared to other studies, our phylogeny generated from mt genome datasets showed a different topology. Therefore, inclusion of data other than mt genomes would be required to resolve phylogeny of sucking lice. This is the first report of a mt genome with ten mt minichromosomes in sucking lice, which opened new outlook into unexplored fragmentation pattern in their mt genomes. Our results would encourage further investigation on mt genome fragmentation pattern in parasitic lice and other insects.