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Virtual electrodes induced throughout bulk myocardium by ICD defibrillation

Virtual electrodes have been observed on the epicardium using an optical recording techniques. Although they are hypothesized to be responsible for both termination and re-initiation of reentrant activity, they have not been observed in the bulk of the myocardium due to experimental limitations. By using a detailed finite element model of the human torso that incorporates a bidomain ventricular myocardium with realistic fibrous architecture, evidence for the existence of virtual electrodes within the myocardial bulk is presented.