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"Scattered Health" in Chinese Cities of the Middle Imperial Period

The ancient Chinese understanding of the factors contributing to disease centered on the abstract concept of qi: people believed that qi pervaded heaven and earth, although it could be avoided or resisted by strengthening one's personal constitution or through self-cultivation, but they lacked an integrated concept of health. Many methods of safeguarding community health existed in ancient China, although many involved passive acceptance of fate. One example is the use of manure to maintain urban health; the district system and broad streets also limited the spread of certain diseases. Practical experience also allowed people to avoid pathogens through urban reform. Physicians and religious thinkers often saw medical treatment and health as personal matters, however, while scholars' concept of health was understood within Confucian doctrines. It could be argued that many health protection measures were never elevated to the level of public affairs. In a reading of Chinese history based on Western terminology and thought, "health" cannot be found, because it is scattered in every corner: it played a certain role in health protection on various levels, but it was never integrated by any one person or idea until the modern trend of Western learning in the East.