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Identification of Genomic Regions Controlling Chalkiness and Grain Characteristics in a Recombinant Inbred Line Rice Population Based on High-Throughput SNP Markers

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the primary food for half of the global population. Recently, there has been increasing concern in the rice industry regarding the eating and milling quality of rice. This study was conducted to identify genetic information for grain characteristics using a recombinant inbred line (RIL) population from a japonica/indica cross based on high-throughput SNP markers and to provide a strategy for improving rice quality. The RIL population used was derived from a cross of “Kaybonnet (KBNT lpa)” and “ZHE733” named the K/Z RIL population, consisting of 198 lines. A total of 4133 SNP markers were used to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) with higher resolution and to identify more accurate candidate genes. The characteristics measured included grain length (GL), grain width (GW), grain length to width ratio (RGLW), hundred grain weight (HGW), and percent chalkiness (PC). QTL analysis was performed using QTL IciMapping software. Continuous distributions and transgressive segregations of all the traits were observed, suggesting that the traits were quantitatively inherited. A total of twenty-eight QTLs and ninety-two candidate genes related to rice grain characteristics were identified. This genetic information is important to develop rice varieties of high quality.


Introduction
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the major dietary component for approximately more than half of the global population [1], and the demand for high-quality rice is gradually increasing due to the increasing standards of living [2]. The indicators of high-quality rice are based on physical characteristics and sensory properties such as milling performance, grain appearance, aroma, cooking, and nutrient composition [3]. These indicators are becoming important factors in rice marketing, which affects consumer acceptance of rice. Grain appearance quality is determined by grain length (GL), grain width (GW), grain length to width ratio (RGLW), hundred grain weight (HGW), and percent chalkiness (PC) or translucency [4]. Preference of rice quality is also influenced by cultures and habits [5]. Slender and long grains having an RGLW of three or above are generally preferred by the majority of rice consumers in most Asian countries, including India, China, and Thailand. Meanwhile, short and wide grains are preferred in Japan and Korea [6]. Thus, rice breeders have a challenging problem to improve rice grain quality and yield and need to consider the appropriate grain shape for market requirements.
Grain chalkiness has become an important problem in many global rice-producing areas since chalky grains negatively affect the cooking, eating, grain appearance, and milling of rice [4,[7][8][9]. Chalkiness is an opaque area that occurs at the center, belly, or The grain chalkiness QTL qPGWC-7 on chromosome 7, containing 13 candidate genes, was defined by Zhao et al. (2009) [42]. A fine mapped QTL associated with grain size was also identified on chromosome 7, GS7/qSS7 [39,40]. GW8 (OsSPL16) on chromosome 8 is a positive regulator of grain width and yield [38]. Another QTL for grain chalkiness on chromosome 8, qPGC8-2, was validated by Sun et al. (2015) [35]. A novel QTL for grain length and 1000 grain weight (qGL11) on chromosome 11 was validated by using chromosome segment substitution lines [29]. In 2019, Chen et al. [31] also validated a QTL for grain length (qGL12) on chromosome 12 by using a high-throughput SNP marker. Therefore, it is important to identify novel QTLs or candidate genes associated with the chalkiness and grain characteristics for the improvement of grain quality. The objective of this research was to identify the genetic information on rice grain characteristics using a recombinant inbred line population from a japonica/indica cross based on high-throughput SNP markers and to provide a strategy for improving rice quality. According to our previous study of chalkiness and grain characteristics using diverse rice genotypes, we found that the upland japonica variety Kaybonnet and the indica variety ZHE733 displayed a significant difference in percent chalkiness.

Plant Material
A recombinant inbred line (RIL) population consisting of 198 lines, derived from the cross of the upland japonica variety Kaybonnet (KBNT lpa) and the indica variety ZHE733 (named K/Z RIL population), and the two parents were planted in a randomized complete block design with five replications for each parent and line in the growing season (May-November) in 2018 at the Agricultural Research Center, Fayetteville, AR, USA. A total of two parents and 198 lines with five replications for each parent and line were used for experiments and data analysis. Field management followed the normal agronomic procedures. The K/Z RIL population is a registered mapping population by Rutger and Tai (2005) [47], and it was generated from an F2 population by single seed descent (SSD) after selfing for F10 generations (USDA, Stuttgart, AR, USA). This population was chosen for the study because there is a significant difference between the parents in terms of chalk percentage: KBNT lpa has translucent grains containing 3.15% chalk, and ZHE733 with opaque grains contains 25.37% chalk [33]. The K/Z RIL population has previously been used for mapping biotic resistance, including water weevil and straighthead resistance [48].

Measurement of Grain Characteristics
The rice grains were dried to approximately 12% moisture with an air drier (Thermo Scientific Cytomat Automated Incubators, Watham, MA, USA) at 28 • C and then dehulled using an automatic rice husker (Kett, Villa Park, CA, USA). The percent chalk (PC), grain length (GL), grain weight (GW), and grain length to width ratio (RGLW) were calculated using WinSEEDLE Pro V.2007E (Regent Instruments Inc., Sainte-Foy, QC, Canada) with an Epson Perfection V800 photo scanner (Epson America Inc., Long Beach, CA, USA), using 100 g per line. Hundred grain weight (HGW) was calculated from the weight of 100 g (Mettler-Toledo, Greifensee, Switzerland). All measurements for each line were made with five replications per line and used for QTL analyses.

Scanning Electron Microscopy
Rice grains of the two parental genotypes, KBNT lpa and ZHE733, were dehulled using an automatic rice husker (Kett, Villa Park, CA, USA) and fixed in 10% formalin for 24 h. Fixed grains were rinsed with distilled water three times for 30 min. Rinsed grains were dehydrated using a standard series of ethanol: 25%, 50%, 75%, and 95% each for 20 min; then, they were washed with 100% ethanol three times for 30 min each. Grain samples were dried until the critical point. Dried grains were cut in half transversely using a scalpel, and halved grains were mounted on aluminum stubs with the fractures facing up.
The specimens were gold coated at 35 mA for 120 s. The morphology of the endosperms was examined with a scanning electron microscope (Leo440 Stereoscan SEM, LEO/Leica, Cambridge, UK) at an accelerating voltage of 30.00 kV, a working distance of 10 mm, a probe current of 20 pA, and spot sizes of 500, 20, and 10 µm. SEM analysis was based on three biological replications per treatment. All of the SEM procedures were carried out according to the manufacturer's protocol.

Correlation of Grain Characteristics in the RIL Population
The Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated pairwise between the traits PC, GL, GW, RGLW, and HGW using JMP version 12.0.

Genotyping
Leaf samples of the two-week-old seedlings of the 198 selected lines and parents were used for genomic DNA extraction using the cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) method, as described [49]. A single-end library with Pstl and Mspl enzymes was created for GBS by the University of Minnesota Genomics Center. Two million base pair (bp) reads were generated by NextSeq with a 1 × 150 bp read length. Reads with mean quality scores above Q30 were chosen for analysis. A FASTQ file was generated from the sequence reads for SNP identification. Illumina BCL2FASTQ software version 3.9. was used to de-multiplex the FASTQ files. The adapter sequences, comprising the first 12 bases of the individual reads, were removed using Trimmomatic version 0.32. Burrows-Wheeler Alignment (BWA) software version 0.7.17.tar.bz2 was used to align the FASTQ files to the reference genome of Nipponbare, Oryza sativa spp. japonica version MSU7. SNP calling was performed from the sequences that perfectly matched and aligned to the reference Nipponbare genome. The call variants across all samples were joined using Freebayes version 0.9.18, and a raw Variant Call Format (VCF) file was generated. The VCF file was filtered by using VCF tools to remove variants with a minor allele frequency of less than 1%, variants with genotype rates of less than 95%, samples with genotype rates of less than 50%, variants with 100% missing data, variants with monomorphic markers between parents, and variants with more than 50% heterozygosity. The file format of the identified SNPs was converted to an ABH-based format, where "A" is a donor allele, "B" is a recipient allele, and "H" is a heterozygous allele.

Linkage Map Construction and QTL Analysis
A total of 4133 filtered SNP markers which covered 12 chromosomes were used to construct a linkage map using QTL IciMapping software version 4.2.53 [50] with the Kosambi mapping function [51], and with the recombination frequency (r) set at 0.45. The grain characteristics used to conduct QTL analysis were PC, GL, GW, RGLW, and HGW. A total of 198 lines were used for the QTL analysis. QTL analysis was performed using QTL IciMapping software version 4.2.53 with the inclusive composite interval mapping (ICIM) function. ICIM was used for additive, dominant, and epistatic QTL mapping in biparental populations, using background markers as cofactors for analysis. Significant QTLs were determined based on a phenotypic variance (PVE) ≥ 2% and a logarithm of odd (LOD) ≥ 2.5. QTL nomenclature followed that of Solis et al. (2018) [52] and McCouch (2008) [53] based on the trait name, chromosome number, and physical map position on the genome.

Identification of Candidate Genes within the QTL Regions
The positions of the SNP markers flanking the QTL regions were used to identify the candidate genes present within the QTL regions. The MSU japonica rice reference genome annotation release 7.0 was used as the reference for physical mapping.

Distribution of Grain Characteristics in the RIL Population
The results from the measurements of five traits for the parents and the RIL population are summarized in Table 1. Significant differences for PC, GL, and RGLW were found between the two parents. ZHE733 had higher phenotypic values than KBNT lpa for PC and RGLW, but not for GL. Values for all the phenotypic traits in the RIL population showed continuous phenotypic variation with bell-shaped phenotypic distributions and a wide range of variation (Figure 1), suggesting that these traits were quantitatively inherited and suitable for genetic mapping QTL analysis. In the five measured traits, transgressive segregation in one or both directions was detected. The mean values of PC, GL, GW, RGLW, and HGW ranged from 3.05 to 73.22%, 5.56 to 8.08 mm, 1.86 to 3.01 mm, 0.25 to 0.48, and 1.28 to 3.19 g, respectively. Table 1. Phenotypic values of percent chalk, grain length, grain width, grain length to width ratio, and hundred grain weight of the K/Z RIL population. For PC, the values for the RIL population ranged from 3.05 to 73.22%, and KBNT lpa showed 3.15% while ZHE733 showed 35.15%. The frequency distribution of PC in the RIL population exhibited transgressive segregation for higher PC, with 36% of lines exceeding the PC of ZHE733 as the parent with higher chalkiness, whereas only 1.01% of lines showed lower PC than KBNT lpa as the parent with lower chalkiness ( Figure 1A). Furthermore, based on the frequency distribution, Figure 1B-D demonstrate that most of the lines showed similarity with ZHE733 in terms of GL, GW, and RGLW. In addition, for HGW, most of the lines have a lower value than that of both parents ( Figure 1E).

Morphology of Starch Granules
Based on the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis, translucent grains (KBNT lpa) and chalky grains (ZHE733) showed significant differences in their starch granule structures ( Figure 2). Translucent grains displayed a thick aleurone layer, compact with a high density of starch granules located in the central area (Figure 2A), whereas chalky grains exhibited a thin aleurone layer, loose with a low density of starch granules that were mostly located in the peripheral area ( Figure 2B). Furthermore, the shape of the starch granules in the translucent grains showed a polygonal structure ( Figure 2C), while the chalky grains had rounded starch granules with a larger space between them ( Figure 2D). Starch granules of the chalky grains showed cavities ( Figure 2F), while there were no cavities in the translucent grains ( Figure 2E).

Correlation of Grain Characteristics in the RIL Population
The phenotypic correlation coefficients of grain characteristics are listed in Table 2. A strong positive correlation was observed between PC and GW (r = 0.56; p < 0.05), indicating that the broader the rice grain is, the chalkier the rice is. RGLW was strongly and positively correlated with PC (r = 0.33; p < 0.05), GL (r = 0.69; p < 0.05), and GW (r = 0.82; p < 0.05), and the grain size, GW, and RGLW had an important impact on PC. Furthermore, the correlation coefficient for HGW with each of the traits was small, indicating the complexity of the relationship among the traits.

Correlation of Percent Chalk and Grain Characteristics in the RIL Population
Phenotypic correlation coefficients of percent chalk and grain characteristics are listed in Table 2. High and positive correlation was observed between PC and GW (r = 0.56; P < 0.05), indicating that the broader the rice grain is, the chalkier the rice is. RGLW was highly and positively correlated with PC (r = 0.33; P < 0.05), GL (r = 0.69; P < 0.05), and GW (r = 0.82; P < 0.05), and the grain size, GW and RGLW had an important impact on PC. Furthermore, the correlation coefficient for HGW with each of the traits is small, indicating the complexity of the relationship among the traits.

QTLs for Percent Chalk (PC)
The genetic map was constructed based on 198 lines of K/Z RIL populations and had a total length of 6063.12 cM with an average distance of 1.58 cM between adjacent markers, covering 373 Mb of the rice genome in total. This high-density genetic map was used to identify QTLs with higher resolution and to identify candidate genes more accurately [54]. Table 3 displays the significance of the logarithm of odds (LOD), percent of variation explained (PVE), peak markers, marker position, candidate genes, and gene annotation of all the significant QTLs for grain characteristics. Fifteen QTLs controlling percent chalk (PC) were identified and mapped to chromosomes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, and 12 (Table 3 and Figure 3) and tentatively named after the chromosome mapped for qPC1.1; qPC2.1; qPC3.1; qPC4.1, qPC4.2, qPC4.3, and qPC4.4; qPC5.1 and qPC5.2; qPC6.1; qPC7.1; qPC9.1; qPC10.1; qPC11.1; and qPC12.1, respectively. All of the QTLs for PC showed a high value of LOD and PVE, ranging from 3.04 to 4.11 and 3.04% to 7.29%, respectively. Within the QTL regions, 49 candidate genes for PC were found, with gene annotation involved in many biological processes, molecular functions, and cell components (Table 3).

QTLs for Grain Length (GL)
285 Two QTLs (Table 3 and Figure 3) for GL were detected and mapped to chromosome 286 11 and 12, named as qGL11. 1

293
A total of four QTLs were found for GW (Table 3 and Figure 3), with one each on 294 chromosome 1, 6, 10, and 11, and tentatively named qGW1.

QTLs for Grain Length (GL)
Two QTLs (Table 3 and Figure 3) for GL were detected and mapped to chromosomes 11 and 12, named qGL11.1 and qGL12.1, respectively. The QTL qGL11.1 explained 8.44% of the variation with an LOD score of 4.96, located at 405 cM near the SNP marker KZ104292 on chromosome 11. Another QTL, qGL12.1, was identified at 263 cM near the SNP marker KZ105819 on chromosome 12, with 7.07% PVE and an LOD score of 2.81. Within the QTL regions, two candidate genes were found, with gene annotation predicted to be a b-ZIP transcription factor.

QTLs for Hundred Grain Weight (HGW)
On chromosomes 3 and 6, QTLs for HGW were identified, named qHGW3.1 and qHGW6.1, respectively. qHGW3.1 is located on chromosome 3 at 507 cM near the SNP marker KZ35937, with an LOD score of 7.25, which explained 16.26% of the variation. The second QTL, qHGW6.1, is at 107 cM near the SNP marker KZ67895 on chromosome 6, which explained 6.79% of the variation, with an LOD score of 3.19 (Table 3 and Figure 3). Within the QTL regions, four candidate genes were found, with gene annotation associated with enoyl-CoA hydratase protein.

QTLs for Grain Length to Width Ratio (RGLW)
Five QTLs were detected for RGLW, with one on chromosome 3 (qRGLW3.1), two on chromosome 4 (qRGLW4.1 and qRGLW4.2), and two on chromosome 11 (qRGLW11.1 and qRGLW11.2), shown in Table 3 and Figure 3. Each of these QTLs explained 2.51-3.13% of the variation with LOD scores of 2.61-2.91. Within the QTL regions, 21 candidate genes were found, with gene annotation related to zinc finger protein.

Discussion
Recently, issues related to climate change are increasing the impact of abiotic and biotic stresses. An understanding of the genetic information associated with the phenotypes of rice grain chalk percent and structural characteristics is important to develop rice varieties with good quality and high yield. Molecular markers linked to chalkiness and rice grain characteristics can be used to eliminate poor or undesired alleles to improve quality and yield in rice breeding programs through marker-assisted selection (MAS).
In this study, a recombinant inbred line (RIL) population derived from the cross of the upland japonica variety Kaybonnet (KBNT lpa) and the indica variety ZHE733 (named K/Z RIL population) was used. The novelty of this study is related to the genetic composition of the RIL population, being a cross of different subspecies that contains much genetic recombination, and the QTLs were analyzed by using high-throughput SNP markers. Previously, many studies conducted QTL analyses associated with rice grain appearance by using many different kinds of mapping populations, including F2 populations [40]; a doubled-haploid (DH) population derived from a cross between the same subspecies or different subspecies [55]; a near-isogenic line (NIL) population [32,45]; recombinant inbred line (RIL) populations from crosses within the same subspecies, or between different subspecies or from elite hybrids [11,28,33,34,39,[56][57][58]; a backcross population [59,60]; and a chromosomal segment substitution line (CSSL) population [29,35,61], and only used standard markers for QTL analysis.
According to Edwards et al. (2017) [33], genetic and environmental factors influence the rice grain characteristics of segregating populations inheriting the complex rice grain quality traits. The parents of the K/Z RIL population, KBNT lpa and ZHE733, exhibited a significant difference in percent chalk (PC), grain length (GL), and grain length to width ratio (RGLW) ( Table 1). The K/Z RIL population showed a continuous distribution for grain characteristics, suggesting that these phenotypes are controlled by quantitative trait loci ( Figure 1). Transgressive segregation for single or both directions was detected in all the grain characteristics (PC, GL, GW, RGLW, and HGW). The direction of the transgressive segregation in PC towards increased PC (greater than the higher PC parent, ZHE733) could be influenced by the lpa1-1 mutant allele [33]. The transgressive segregation for GL was more towards a reduction in GL (less than the shorter GL parent, ZHE733), while GW showed transgressive segregation towards an increase in GW (greater than the wider GW parent, ZHE733), and the direction for RGLW leaned more towards an increase in RGLW (more than the higher RGLW parent, ZHE733), whereas the transgressive segregation for HGW was more towards a reduction in HGW (less than both parents, KBNT lpa and ZHE733). This transgressive segregation may be due to epistasis or additive effects at multiple recombined loci, which may be because of the inter-subspecies cross between KBNT lpa as a tropical japonica and ZHE733 as an indica subspecies, which could influence the characteristics of PC, GL, GW, RGLW, and HGW in the K/Z RIL population [33]. Based on the results from a previous analysis, PC correlated with grain shape traits [62]. The results of this study are also consistent with previous results, with the grain size (GL, GW, and RGLW) loci showing strong positive correlations with PC ( Table 2).
The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observation revealed that in KBNT, the lpa mutant displays a translucent grain that shows polygonal and compact starch granules, while ZHE733 has a chalky grain that displays loose and round starch granules. According to Lisle et al. (2000) [23], chalky grains have a lower starch concentration compared to translucent grains. Chalky grains contain less amylose and more amylopectin with long branched chains compared to translucent grains [63]. Chalky grains display an opaque appearance due to the spaces between the loosely packed starch granules that block light transmission. The spaces also generate mechanical breakage during the milling process [28], causing a reduction in grain quality.
QTL mapping has frequently been used to detect QTLs and candidate genes within the QTL regions, and the most reliable molecular markers used have been single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) due to their broad distribution throughout the rice genome compared to conventional markers such as simple sequence repeat (SSR), restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) [64]. A high-density genetic linkage map can be generated by using higher number of SNPs, which thus allows higher efficiency of QTL mapping that can identify more precise QTLs and candidate genes [65]. In this study, high-throughput SNP markers were used.
In this study, a total of twenty-eight QTLs and ninety-two candidate genes related to rice grain characteristics were identified (Table 3 and Figure 3). Some QTLs showed a pleiotropic or location-linked association that was influenced by the phenotypic correlations between rice grain characteristics. Two QTLs, for PC (qPC6.1) and GW (qGW6.1), located on chromosome 6 showed a pleiotropic or location-linked association since PC and GW exhibited a strong positive correlation (r = 0.56; p < 0.05) ( Table 2). Fitzgerald et al. (2009) [4] also reported that PC was associated with GW. Chromosome 6 has been reported to be a grain quality QTLs hotspot associated with percent chalk, grain characteristics, amylose, head rice yield, gelatinization temperature, and gel consistency [66]. Furthermore, most of the QTLs were independent of one another as they were at different genome locations.
Three QTLs identified on chromosome 3, namely qPC3.1, qRGLW3.1, and qHGW3.1, have overlapping regions for chalkiness and grain characteristics, as reported by Tan et al. (2001) [56]. On chromosome 4, four QTLs associated with chalkiness (qPC4.1, qPC4.2, qPC4.3, and qPC4.4) were detected, and two QTLs related to ratio of grain length to grain width (qRGLW4.1 and qRGLW4.2) were identified. These QTLs overlap with the flo-2 locus (locus of rice floury endosperm) that regulates the expression of genes related to starch synthesis, including rice starch-branching enzyme (RBE) and granule-bound starch synthase (GBSS) [72]. Two QTLs associated with chalkiness (qPC5.1 and qPC5.2) were detected on chromosome 5 that overlapped with the flo-1 locus [73], Chalk5 [36], and a QTL related to percentage of grain with chalkiness (PGWC) [73]. The flo-1 locus determines a floury white endosperm that shows round and loosely stacked starch granules [10]. Chalk5 is a major QTL for chalkiness, and overexpression of Chalk5 leads to the development of loosely deposited starch granules with spaces around the starch granules and protein bodies. Li et al. (2014) [36] suggested that overexpression of Chalk5 disturbs the pH homeostasis of the endomembrane trafficking system and changes the biogenesis of protein bodies in the endosperm development period.

Conclusions
Considering the increasing concern in the rice industry regarding the eating and milling quality of rice, the identification of genetic information related to grain characteristics is important to provide a strategy for improving rice quality. Continuous distributions and transgressive segregations of all the traits were observed, suggesting that the traits were quantitatively inherited. A total of twenty-eight QTLs and ninety-two candidate genes related to rice grain characteristics were identified. The QTL for chalkiness on chromosome 2, qPC2.1, located near the lpa1-1 gene, might be the cause of chalkiness in this K/Z RIL population. Two QTLs for PC (qPC6.1) and GW (qGW6.1), located on chromosome 6, showed a pleiotropic or location-linked association, as PC and GW exhibited a strong positive correlation (r = 0.56; p < 0.05). The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observation revealed that there was a significant difference between KBNT lpa and ZHE733 in terms of the starch granules' morphology. KBNT lpa as a translucent grain showed polygonal and compact starch granules, while ZHE733 as a chalky grain displayed loose and round starch granules. Hence, this study provides valuable information to develop rice varieties of high quality. In future studies, it will be important to clone the genes within the QTLs qPC2.1, qPC6.1, and qGW6.1 to validate the function of the genes in chalkiness and grain characteristics.

Data Availability Statement:
The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.