How Text to Speech Voices Are Used In Data Science

To speak on voices, text to speech platforms are bringing versatility to a new scale by implementing voices that sound more personal and less like a robot. As these services gain traction, vocal quality, and implementation improve to give sounds that feel like they’re speaking to you from a human mouth.

The intention of most text to speech platforms have always been to provide experiences that users feel comfortable using. Voices are a huge part of that, so great strides have been taken to ensure that they sound right.

How Voices are Utilized

Voices in the text to speech are generated by a computer itself. As the computer-generated voices transcribe the text into oral responses, they make up what we hear as dialogue read to us. These voice clips initially had the problem of sounding robotic and unpersonable as they were pulled digitally together. Lately, though, the technology has improved to bring faster response time in transcribing words, as well as seamlessly stringing together. This has brought the advantage of making a computer-generated voice sound much more natural and human. As people seek to connect more with the works they read, having a human-sounding voice is a huge step in letting listeners relate to their works.

To give an example of where this works, you might have a GPS in your car. The GPS has a function where it will transcribe the car’s route and tell you each instruction. Some GPS companies have made full use of this feature and added fun voices to help entertain drivers. These include Darth Vader and Yoda from Star Wars or having Morgan Freeman and Homer Simpson narrate your route. Different voice types are utilized in services depending on the situation. Professional uses like customer service centers will keep automated voices sounding professional and courteous when assisting customers. Educational systems will keep softer and kinder sounding voices to help sound more friendly with students.

When compared to older solutions, the rise of vocal variety in Text to Speech services has taken huge leaps as more people see the value of having a voice that they can connect to. Expressive voices and emotional variance are being applied to voices to help further convey this, with happy or sad sounding voices being implemented wherever appropriate. As time goes on, these services will get better at the reading context within sentences to apply emotion and tone at the correct times, and improve overall vocal quality as well. These reinvent past methods by advancing the once static and robotic sounds that used to be commonplace among text to voice services.

More infrastructures adopt these services to expand their reach to consumers who might not have the capabilities to utilize their offerings.  Having clear and relatable voices matter because customers and users will be drawn to them considerably more than if they chose not to offer them at all. In the near future text to speech voices will develop even further, enhancing the way people of all kinds connect to the words they read.

As Businesses Struggle With ML, Automation Offers a Solution

In recent years, machine learning technology and the business solutions it enables has developed into a big business in and of itself. According to the industry analysts at IDC, spending on ML and AI technology is set to grow to almost $98 billion per year by 2023. In practical terms, that figure represents a business environment where ML technology has become a key priority for companies of every kind.

That doesn’t mean that the path to adopting ML technology is easy for businesses. Far from it. In fact, survey data seems to indicate that businesses are still struggling to get their machine learning efforts up and running. According to one such survey, it currently takes the average business as many as 90 days to deploy a single machine learning model. For 20% of businesses, that number is even higher.

From the data, it seems clear that something is missing in the methodologies that most companies rely on to make meaningful use of machine learning in their business workflows. A closer look at the situation reveals that the vast majority of data workers (analysts, data scientists, etc.) spend an inordinate amount of time on infrastructure work – and not on creating and refining machine learning models.

Streamlining the ML Adoption Process

To fix that problem, businesses need to turn to another growing area of technology: automation. By leveraging the latest in automation technology, it’s now possible to build an automated machine learning pipeline (AutoML pipeline) that cuts down on the repetitive tasks that slow down ML deployments and lets data workers get back to the work they were hired to do. With the right customized solution in place, a business’s ML team can:

  • Reduce the time spent on data collection, cleaning, and ingestion
  • Minimize human errors in the development of ML models
  • Decentralize the ML development process to create an ML-as-a-service model with increased accessibility for all business stakeholders

In short, an AutoML pipeline turns the high-effort functions of the ML development process into quick, self-adjusting steps handled exclusively by machines. In some use cases, an AutoML pipeline can even allow non-technical stakeholders to self-create ML solutions tailored to specific business use cases with no expert help required. In that way, it can cut ML costs, shorten deployment time, and allow data scientists to focus on tackling more complex modelling work to develop custom ML solutions that are still outside the scope of available automation techniques.

The Parts of an AutoML Pipeline

Although the frameworks and tools used to create an AutoML pipeline can vary, they all contain elements that conform to the following areas:

  • Data Preprocessing – Taking available business data from a variety of sources, cleaning it, standardizing it, and conducting missing value imputation
  • Feature Engineering – Identifying features in the raw data set to create hypotheses for the model to base predictions on
  • Model Selection – Choosing the right ML approach or hyperparameters to produce the desired predictions
  • Tuning Hyperparameters – Determining which hyperparameters help the model achieve optimal performance

As anyone familiar with ML development can tell you, the steps in the above process tend to represent the majority of the labour and time-intensive work that goes into creating a model that’s ready for real-world business use. It is also in those steps where the lion’s share of business ML budgets get consumed, and where most of the typical delays occur.

The Limitations and Considerations for Using AutoML

Given the scope of the work that can now become part of an AutoML pipeline, it’s tempting to imagine it as a panacea – something that will allow a business to reduce its reliance on data scientists going forward. Right now, though, the technology can’t do that. At this stage, AutoML technology is still best used as a tool to augment the productivity of business data teams, not to supplant them altogether.

To that end, there are some considerations that businesses using AutoML will need to keep in mind to make sure they get reliable, repeatable, and value-generating results, including:

  • Transparency – Businesses must establish proper vetting procedures to make sure they understand the models created by their AutoML pipeline, so they can explain why it’s making the choices or predictions it’s making. In some industries, such as in medicine or finance, this could even fall under relevant regulatory requirements.
  • Extensibility – Making sure the AutoML framework may be expanded and modified to suit changing business needs or to tackle new challenges as they arise.
  • Monitoring and Maintenance – Since today’s AutoML technology isn’t a set-it-and-forget-it proposition, it’s important to establish processes for the monitoring and maintenance of the deployment so it can continue to produce useful and reliable ML models.

The Bottom Line

As it stands today, the convergence of automation and machine learning holds the promise of delivering ML models at scale for businesses, which would greatly speed up the adoption of the technology and lower barriers to entry for those who have yet to embrace it. On the whole, that’s great news both for the businesses that will benefit from increased access to ML technology, as well as for the legions of data professionals tasked with making it all work.

It’s important to note, of course, that complete end-to-end ML automation with no human intervention is still a long way off. While businesses should absolutely explore building an automated machine learning pipeline to speed up development time in their data operations, they shouldn’t lose sight of the fact that they still need plenty of high-skilled data scientists and analysts on their teams. It’s those specialists that can make appropriate and productive use of the technology. Without them, an AutoML pipeline would accomplish little more than telling the business what it wants to hear.

The good news is that the AutoML tools that exist right now are sufficient to alleviate many of the real-world problems businesses face in their road to ML adoption. As they become more commonplace, there’s little doubt that the lead time to deploy machine learning models is going to shrink correspondingly – and that businesses will enjoy higher ROI and enhanced outcomes as a result.

Best machine learning algorithms you should know



What is meant by machine learning algorithms?



What are the algorithms used in machine learning?



1 Supervised learning




2 Unsupervised learning


3 Semi-supervised learning


4 Reinforcement learning


The best machine learning algorithms you should know

1 Linear Regression



2 Logistic regression



3 Principal component analysis (PCA or LDA)


4 K-means clustering




5 Decision trees



6 Random forests



7 Support Vector Machine



8 Apriori



9 Naive Bayes Classifier




10 K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN)


11 Ordinary Least Squares Regression (OLSR)





Bird scooters in Columbus, Ohio

Bird scooters in Columbus, Ohio




I set out to ask the following questions:





Bird scooters in Tel Aviv, Israel

Bird scooters in Tel Aviv, Israel


Data Collection and Machine Learning Pipeline

The full data pipeline for building “NestGenerator”





Data Sources:


Feature Engineering


Full Feature Set

Full Feature Set

The features boiled down into four categories:



Log-Scale Transformation


An example of a log transformation

Statistical Analysis: A Systematic Approach






Throwing Away Features


Statistically Insignificant Features Removed Before Model Development

Model Development




Performance on Additional Cities Test Data

The Random Forest Classifier displayed superior performance across the board

The Random Forest Classifier displayed superior performance across the board


AUC Score on Test Data for each Model

AUC Score on Test Data for each Model

Feature Importance


Feature Importance for the Random Forest Classifier

Feature Importance for the Random Forest Classifier

The Trade-off Space




Run-Time Compliant Application Model



Feature Importance for the Run-time Compliant Random Forest Classifier

Feature Importance for the Run-time Compliant Random Forest Classifier


Geospatial Clustering










NestGenerator Application



Drop-Down Map View filtering based on Nest Classification

Drop-Down Map View filtering based on Nest Classification

Nearest Generated Nest







The code for this project can be found on my GitHub

Comments or Questions? Please email me an E-Mail!


Closing the AI-skills gap with Upskilling

Closing the AI-skills gap with Upskilling



Increasing adoption of AI across Industry




Bridging the skill gap in AI-related jobs





Roles in Artificial Intelligence



Self-learning and upskilling



Introduction to ROC Curve

The abbreviation ROC stands for Receiver Operating Characteristic. Its main purpose is to illustrate the diagnostic ability of classifier as the discrimination threshold is varied. It was developed during World War II when Radar operators had to decide if the blip on the screen is an enemy target, a friendly ship or just a noise.  For these purposes they measured the ability of a radar receiver operator to make these important distinctions, which was called the Receiver Operating Characteristic.

Later it was found useful in interpreting medical test results and then in Machine learning classification problems. In order to get an introduction to binary classification and terms like ‘precision’ and ‘recall’ one can look into my earlier blog  here.

True positive rate and false positive rate

Let’s imagine a situation where a fire alarm is installed in a kitchen. The alarm is supposed to emit a sound in case fire smoke is detected in the room. Unfortunately, there is a lot of cooking done in the kitchen and the alarm may trigger the sound too often. Thus, instead of serving a purpose the alarm becomes a nuisance due to a large number of false alarms. In statistical terms these types of errors are called type 1 errors, or false positives.

One way to deal with this problem is to simply decrease sensitivity of the device. We do this by increasing the trigger threshold at the alarm setting. But then, not every alarm should have the same threshold setting. Consider the same type of device but kept in a bedroom. With high threshold, the device might miss smoke from a real short-circuit in the wires which poses a real danger of fire. This kind of failure is called Type 2 error or a false negative. Although the two devices are the same, different types of threshold settings are optimal for different circumstances.

To specify this more formally, let us describe the performance of a binary classifier at a particular threshold by the following parameters:


These parameters take different values at different thresholds. Hence, they define the performance of the classifier at particular threshold. But we want to examine in overall how good a classifier is. Fortunately, there is a way to do that. We plot the True Positive Rate (TPR) and False Positive rate (FPR) at different thresholds and this plot is called ROC curve.

Let’s try to understand this with an example.

A case with a distinct population distribution

Let’s suppose there is a disease which can be identified with deficiency of some parameter (maybe a certain vitamin). The distribution of population with this disease has a mean vitamin concentration sharply distinct from the mean of a healthy population, as shown below.

This is result of dummy data simulating population of 2000 people,the link to the code is given  in the end of this blog.  As the two populations are distinctly separated (there is no  overlap between the two distributions), we can expect that a classifier would have an easy job distinquishing healthy from sick people. We can run a logistic regression classifier with a threshold of .5 and be 100% succesful in detecting the decease.

The confusion matrix may look something like this.

In this ideal case with a threshold  of  .5 we do not make a single wrong classification. The True positive rate and False positive rate are 1 and 0, respectively. But we can shift the threshold. In that case, we will  get different confusion matrices. First we plot threshold vs. TPR.

We see for most values of threshold the TPR is close to 1 which again proves data is easy to classify and the classifier is returning high probabilities  for the most of positives .

Similarly Let’s plot threshold vs. FPR.

For most of the data points FPR is close to zero. This is also good. Now its time to plot the ROC curve using these results (TPR vs FPR).

Let’s try to interpret  the results,  all the points lie on line x=0 and y=1, it means for all the points FPR is zero or TPR is one, making  the curve a square. which means the classifier does perfectly well.

Case with overlapping  population distribution

The above example was about a perfect classifer. However, life is often not so easy. Now let us consider another more realistic situation in which the parameter distribution of the population is not as distinct as in the previous case. Rather, the mean of the parameter with healthy and not healthy datapoints are close and the distributions overlap, as shown in the next figure.

If we set the threshold to 0.5, the confusion matrix may look like this.

Now, any new choice of threshold location will affect both false positives and false negatives. In fact, there is a trade-off. If we shift the threshold with the goal to reduce false negatives, false positives will increase. If we move the threshold to the other direction and reduce false positive, false negatives will increase.

The plots (TPR vs Threshold) , (FPR vs Threshold) are shown below

If we plot the ROC curve from these results, it looks like this:

From the curve we see the classifier does not perform as well as the earlier one.

What else can be infered from this curve? We first need to understand what the diagonal in this plot represent. The diagonal represents ‘Line of no discrimination’, which we obtain if we randomly guess. This is the ROC curve for the worst possible classifier. Therefore, by comparing the obtained ROC curve with the diagonal, we see how much better our classifer is from random guessing.

The further away ROC curve from the diagonal is (the closest it is to the top left corner) , better the classifier is.

Area Under the curve

The overall performance of the classifier is given by the area under the ROC curve and is usually denoted as AUC. Since TPR and FPR lie within the range of 0 to 1, the AUC also assumes values between 0 and 1. The higher the value of AUC, the better is the overall performance of the classifier.

Let’s see this for the two different distributions which we saw earlier.

As we know the classifier had worked perfectly in the first case with points at (0,1) the area under the curve is 1 which is perfect. In the latter case the classifier was not able to perform as good, the ROC curve is between the diagonal and left hand corner. The AUC as we can see is less than 1.

Some other general characteristics

There are still few points that needs to be discussed on a General ROC curve

  • The ROC curve does not provide information about the actual values of thresholds used for the classifier.
  • Performance of different classifiers can be compared using the AUC of different Classifier. The larger the AUC, the better the classifier.
  • The vertical distance of the ROC curve from the no discrimination line gives a measure of ‘INFORMEDNESS’. This is known as Youden’s J satistic. This statistics can take values between 0 and 1.

Youden’s  J statistic is defined for every point on the ROC curve . The point at which Youden’s  J satistics reaches its maximum for a given ROC curve can be used to guide the selection of the threshold to be used for that classifier.

I hope this post does the job of providing an understanding of ROC curves  and AUC. The  Python program for simulating the example given earlier can be found here .

Please feel free to adjust the mean of the distributions and see the changes in the plot.

How is automation changing data science and machine learning?




Image Source: Google Cloud




Automation in Data Science


Image Source: Wikipedia








How is Machine Learning Transformed with the entrance of Automation?


Image Source: Medium











Final Verdict



Predictive maintenance in Semiconductor Industry: Part 1




Problem definition




Data Understanding and Preparation


import pandas as pd
import numpy as np


# Load dataset
url = ""
names = ["feature" + str(x) for x in range(1, 591)]
secom_var = pd.read_csv(url, sep=" ", names=names, na_values = "NaN") 

url_l = ""
secom_labels = pd.read_csv(url_l,sep=" ",names = ["classification","date"],parse_dates = ["date"],na_values = "NaN")


#Data cleaning
#1. Combined the two datasets
secom_merged = pd.merge(secom_var, secom_labels,left_index=True,right_index=True)

Now let’s check out the distribution of the target variable = 'bar')

Figure 1: Distribution of Target Variable



#2. Analyzing nulls
secom_nulls = secom_rmNa.isnull().sum()/len(secom_rmNa)

Figure 2: Missing percentge in each column

Now we calculate the 95th percentile of the null values.

x = secom_nulls.quantile(0.95)
secom_rmNa = secom_merged[secom_merged.columns[secom_nulls < x]]



secom_complete = secom_rmNa.interpolate()


df = secom_complete.loc[:,secom_complete.apply(pd.Series.nunique) != 1]

## Let's check the shape of the df
(1567, 444)


Bleiben Sie dran!!

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Sentiment Analysis of IMDB reviews


Download the Data Sources

The data sources used in this article can be downloaded here:

Language Detecting with sklearn by determining Letter Frequencies


For example take the sentence:

“Ceci est une phrase française.”







  •  Danish
  •  Dutch
  •  English
  •  Finnish
  •  French
  •  German
  •  Greek
  •  Italian
  •  Portuguese
  •  Spanish
  •  Swedish



Train and Test


from pathlib import Path
import random
from collections import Counter, defaultdict
import numpy as np
import pandas as pd
from sklearn.neighbors import *
from matplotlib import pyplot as plt
from mpl_toolkits import mplot3d
%matplotlib inline

def read(file):
    '''Returns contents of a file'''
    with open(file, 'r', errors='ignore') as f:
        text =
    return text

def load_eu_texts():
    '''Read texts snipplets in 10 different languages into pd.Dataframe

    load_eu_texts() -> pd.Dataframe
    The text snipplets are taken from the nltk-data corpus.
    basepath = Path('/home/my_username/nltk_data/corpora/europarl_raw/langs/')
    df = pd.DataFrame(columns=['text', 'lang', 'len'])
    languages = [None]
    for lang in basepath.iterdir():
        t = '\n'.join([read(p) for p in lang.glob('*')])
        d = pd.DataFrame()
        d['text'] = ''
        d['text'] = pd.Series(t.split('\n'))
        d['lang'] =
        df = df.append(d.copy(), ignore_index=True)
    return df

def clean_eutextdf(df):
    '''Preprocesses the texts by doing a set of cleaning steps
    clean_eutextdf(df) -> cleaned_df
    # Cuts of whitespaces a the beginning and and
    df['text'] = [i.strip() for i in df['text']]
    # Generate a lowercase Version of the text column
    df['ltext'] = [i.lower() for i in df['text']]

    # Determining the length of each text
    df['len'] = [len(i) for i in df['text']]
    # Drops all texts that are not at least 200 chars long
    df = df.loc[df['len'] > 200]
    return df

# Execute the above functions to load the texts
df = clean_eutextdf(load_eu_texts())

# Print a few stats of the read texts
textline = 'Number of text snippplets: ' + str(df.shape[0])
print('\n' + textline + '\n' + ''.join(['_' for i in range(len(textline))]))
c = Counter(df['lang'])
for l in c.most_common():
    print('%-25s' % l[0] + str(l[1]))
Number of text snippplets: 56481
French                   6466
German                   6401
Italian                  6383
Portuguese               6147
Spanish                  6016
Finnish                  5597
Swedish                  4940
Danish                   4914
Dutch                    4826
English                  4791
lang	len	text	ltext
135233	Finnish	346	Vastustan sitä , toisin kuin tämän parlamentin...	vastustan sitä , toisin kuin tämän parlamentin...
170400	Danish	243	Desuden ødelægger det centraliserede europæisk...	desuden ødelægger det centraliserede europæisk...
85466	Italian	220	In primo luogo , gli accordi di Sharm el-Sheik...	in primo luogo , gli accordi di sharm el-sheik...
15926	French	389	Pour ce qui est concrètement du barrage de Ili...	pour ce qui est concrètement du barrage de ili...
195321	English	204	Discretionary powers for national supervisory ...	discretionary powers for national supervisory ...
160557	Danish	304	Det er de spørgmål , som de lande , der udgør ...	det er de spørgmål , som de lande , der udgør ...
196310	English	355	What remains of the concept of what a company ...	what remains of the concept of what a company ...
110163	Portuguese	327	Actualmente , é do conhecimento dos senhores d...	actualmente , é do conhecimento dos senhores d...
151681	Danish	203	Dette er vigtigt for den tillid , som samfunde...	dette er vigtigt for den tillid , som samfunde...
200540	English	257	Therefore , according to proponents , such as ...	therefore , according to proponents , such as ...


def calc_charratios(df):
    '''Calculating ratio of any (alphabetical) char in any text of df for each lyric
    calc_charratios(df) -> list, pd.Dataframe
    CHARS = ''.join({c for c in ''.join(df['ltext']) if c.isalpha()})
    print('Counting Chars:')
    for c in CHARS:
        print(c, end=' ')
        df[c] = [r.count(c) for r in df['ltext']] / df['len']
    return list(CHARS), df

features, df = calc_charratios(df)


def split_dataset(df, ratio=0.5):
    '''Split the dataset into a train and a test dataset
    split_dataset(featuredf, ratio) -> pd.Dataframe, pd.Dataframe
    traindf = df[:][:int(df.shape[0] * ratio)]
    testdf = df[:][int(df.shape[0] * ratio):]
    return traindf, testdf

featuredf = pd.DataFrame()
featuredf['lang'] = df['lang']
for feature in features:
    featuredf[feature] = df[feature]
traindf, testdf = split_dataset(featuredf, ratio=0.80)

x = np.array([np.array(row[1:]) for index, row in traindf.iterrows()])
y = np.array([l for l in traindf['lang']])
X = np.array([np.array(row[1:]) for index, row in testdf.iterrows()])
Y = np.array([l for l in testdf['lang']])


def train_knn(x, y, k):
    '''Returns the trained k nearest neighbors classifier
    train_knn(x, y, k) -> sklearn.neighbors.KNeighborsClassifier
    clf = KNeighborsClassifier(k), y)
    return clf

def test_knn(clf, X, Y):
    '''Tests a given classifier with a testset and return result
    text_knn(clf, X, Y) -> float
    predictions = clf.predict(X)
    ratio_correct = len([i for i in range(len(Y)) if Y[i] == predictions[i]]) / len(Y)
    return ratio_correct

print('''k\tPercentage of correctly predicted language
for i in range(1, 16):
    clf = train_knn(x, y, i)
    ratio_correct = test_knn(clf, X, Y)
    print(str(i) + '\t' + str(round(ratio_correct * 100, 3)) + '%')
k	Percentage of correctly predicted language
1	97.548%
2	97.38%
3	98.256%
4	98.132%
5	98.221%
6	98.203%
7	98.327%
8	98.247%
9	98.371%
10	98.345%
11	98.327%
12	98.3%
13	98.256%
14	98.274%
15	98.309%


Using the Classifier to predict languages of texts


def extract_features(text, features):
    '''Extracts all alphabetic characters and add their ratios as feature
    extract_features(text, features) -> np.array
    textlen = len(text)
    ratios = []
    text = text.lower()
    for feature in features:
        ratios.append(text.count(feature) / textlen)
    return np.array(ratios)

def predict_lang(text, clf=clf):
    '''Predicts the language of a given text and classifier
    predict_lang(text, clf) -> str
    extracted_features = extract_features(text, features)
    return clf.predict(np.array(np.array([extracted_features])))[0]

text_sample = df.sample(10)['text']

for example_text in text_sample:
    print('%-20s'  % predict_lang(example_text, clf) + '\t' + example_text[:60] + '...')
Italian             	Auspico che i progetti riguardanti i programmi possano contr...
English             	When that time comes , when we have used up all our resource...
Portuguese          	Creio que o Parlamento protesta muitas vezes contra este mét...
Spanish             	Sobre la base de esta posición , me parece que se puede enco...
Dutch               	Ik voel mij daardoor aangemoedigd omdat ik een brede consens...
Spanish             	Señor Presidente , Señorías , antes que nada , quisiera pron...
Italian             	Ricordo altresì , signora Presidente , che durante la preced...
Swedish             	Betänkande ( A5-0107 / 1999 ) av Berend för utskottet för re...
English             	This responsibility cannot only be borne by the Commissioner...
Portuguese          	A nossa leitura comum é que esse partido tem uma posição man...


example_text = "ogldviisnntmeyoiiesettpetorotrcitglloeleiengehorntsnraviedeenltseaecithooheinsnstiofwtoienaoaeefiitaeeauobmeeetdmsflteightnttxipecnlgtetgteyhatncdisaceahrfomseehmsindrlttdthoaranthahdgasaebeaturoehtrnnanftxndaeeiposttmnhgttagtsheitistrrcudf"


def dict_invert(dictionary):
    ''' Inverts keys and values of a dictionary
    dict_invert(dictionary) -> collections.defaultdict(list)
    inverse_dict = defaultdict(list)
    for key, value in dictionary.items():
    return inverse_dict

def get_propabilities(text, features=features):
    '''Prints the probability for every language of a given text
    get_propabilities(text, features)
    results = clf.predict_proba(extract_features(text, features=features).reshape(1, -1))
    for result in zip(clf.classes_, results[0]):
        print('%-20s' % result[0] + '%7s %%' % str(round(float(100 * result[1]), 4)))

example_text = 'ogldviisnntmeyoiiesettpetorotrcitglloeleiengehorntsnraviedeenltseaecithooheinsnstiofwtoienaoaeefiitaeeauobmeeetdmsflteightnttxipecnlgtetgteyhatncdisaceahrfomseehmsindrlttdthoaranthahdgasaebeaturoehtrnnanftxndaeeiposttmnhgttagtsheitistrrcudf'
get_propabilities(example_text + '\n')
example_text2 = 'Dies ist ein kurzer Beispielsatz.'
get_propabilities(example_text2 + '\n')
Danish                  0.0 %
Dutch                   0.0 %
English               100.0 %
Finnish                 0.0 %
French                  0.0 %
German                  0.0 %
Italian                 0.0 %
Portuguese              0.0 %
Spanish                 0.0 %
Swedish                 0.0 %

Dies ist ein kurzer Beispielsatz.
Danish                  0.0 %
Dutch                   0.0 %
English                 0.0 %
Finnish                 0.0 %
French              18.1818 %
German              72.7273 %
Italian              9.0909 %
Portuguese              0.0 %
Spanish                 0.0 %
Swedish                 0.0 %

Background and Insights



legend = []
X, Y, Z = 'e', 'g', 'h'

def iterlog(ln):
    retvals = []
    for n in ln:
    return retvals

for X in ['t']:
    ax = plt.axes(projection='3d')
    ax.xy_viewLim.intervalx = [-3.5, -2]
    legend = []
    for lang in [l for l in df.groupby('lang') if l[0] in {'German', 'English', 'Finnish', 'French', 'Danish'}]:
        sample = lang[1].sample(4000)

        ax.scatter3D(iterlog(sample[X]), iterlog(sample[Y]), iterlog(sample[Z]))

    ax.set_title('log(10) of the Relativ Frequencies of "' + X.upper() + "', '" + Y.upper() + '" and "' + Z.upper() + '"\n\n')



legend = []
fig = plt.figure(figsize=(15, 10))
langs = defaultdict(list)

for lang in [l for l in df.groupby('lang') if l[0] in set(df['lang'])]:
    for feature in 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz':

mean_frequencies = {feature:df[feature].mean() for feature in 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'}
for i in langs.items():
    j = np.array(i[1]) / np.array([mean_frequencies[c] for c in 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'])
    plt.plot([c for c in 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'], j)
plt.title('Log. of relative Frequencies compared to the mean Frequency in all texts')
plt.ylabel('(log(Lang. Frequencies / Mean Frequency)')

What more?



legend = []
fig = plt.figure(figsize=(15, 10))
langs = defaultdict(list)
for lang in [l for l in df.groupby('lang') if l[0] in {'German', 'English', 'French', 'Spanish', 'Portuguese', 'Dutch', 'Swedish', 'Danish', 'Italian'}]:
    for feature in 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz':

colordict = {l[0]:l[1] for l in zip([lang for lang in langs], ['brown', 'tomato', 'orangered',
                                                               'green', 'red', 'forestgreen', 'limegreen',
                                                               'darkgreen', 'darkred'])}
for i in langs.items():
    plt.plot([c for c in 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'], j, color=colordict[i[0]])
#     plt.plot([c for c in 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'], i[1], color=colordict[i[0]])
