Main Academic Writing: A Practical Guide for Students

Academic Writing: A Practical Guide for Students


  • different styles and formats from CVs and letters to formal essays
  • a focus on accuracy
  • coverage of all stages of writing, from understanding titles to checking your work
  • essential academic writing skills such as proper referencing, summarising and paraphrasing
  • diagrams and practice exercises, complete with answers.
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A practical guide for students

Stephen Bailey

Text © Stephen Bailey 2003
Original illustrations © Nelson Thornes Ltd 2003
The right of Stephen Bailey to be identiﬁed as author of this work has been asserted
publisher or under licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, of 90
Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP.
Any person who commits any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be
liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.
First published in 2003 by Nelson Thornes Ltd
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by RoutledgeFalmer
29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001
RoutledgeFalmer is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group
ISBN 0-203-46412-5 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 0-203-47059-1 (Adobe eReader Format)
ISBN 0 7487 6838 6 (Print Edition)
Illustrations by Oxford Designers and Illustrators
Page make-up by Northern Phototypesetting Co. Ltd, Bolton

I would like to thank the staff and students at the Centre for English
Language Education (CELE) at The University of Nottingham who have
piloted these materials, and in particular my colleagues Ann Smith, Janet
Sanders and Sandra Haywood for their speciﬁc contributions in unravelling
some of the ﬁner points of academic language. My wife, Rene, deserves my
warmest thanks for her unfailing support, advice and encouragement over
the whole period of the project’s development.
The author and publishers wish to thank the following for permission to
reproduce photographs and other copyright material in this book.
Corel 76 (NT; ) p 29; Corel 102 (NT) p 90; Corel 392 (NT) p 118; Corel 631 (NT)
p33; Corel 786 (NT) p 19; Corel 787 (NT) p 41; Joe Cornish/Digital Vision LL
(NT) p 38; Illustrated London News V1 (NT) p 56; Illustrated London News
V2 (NT) p 4; Photodisc 31 (NT) p 78 ; Photodisc 41 (NT) p 46; Photodisc 46
(NT) pp 56, 80; Photodisc 71 (NT) p 8; Photodisc 72 (NT) p 17; Stockbyte 31
(NT) p 60.
Every effort has been made to contact copyright holders and the publishers
apologise to anyone whose rights have been inadvertently overlooked and
will be happy to recitfy any errors or omissions.

Teachers and lecturers using this book with a class will be able to ﬁnd
extra teaching material within the teacher resources section of the
RoutledgeFalmer website at



Part 1:
The Writing Process


Student introduction


1. Background to writing
2. Developing plans from titles

Writing Foundations


Evaluating a text
Understanding purpose and register
Selecting key points
Summary writing
Combining sources

Reading and Note-Making


Planning a text
Organising paragraphs
Organising the main body
Re-reading and re-writing

Writing Stages




Part 2:
Elements of Writing


Student introduction



Cause and effect
References and quotations
Visual information

Flooding results from heavy rain
The former/the latter
His work is more interesting than hers
An assignment is a task given to students …
Beneﬁts and drawbacks
Many departments, for instance medicine,
Computers are useful machines
The ﬁgures in the report …
As Donner (1997) pointed out
It is generally agreed that …
Graphs, charts and tables




Part 3:
Accuracy in Writing


Student introduction



Formality in verbs
Modal verbs
Nationality language
Nouns and adjectives
Nouns: countable and uncountable
Preﬁxes and sufﬁxes
Prepositions after verbs
Referring verbs
Relative pronouns
Singular/ plural
Time words and phrases

Poor education tends to lead to crime
speed up/accelerate
The gases were discovered
The purpose of this paper …
concentrate on
Martins (1975) claimed that …
The team is/are
Few scientists dispute/have disputed
since the nineteenth century


Part 4:
Writing Models


Student introduction



Formal letters
Designing and reporting surveys
Comparison essay


Discursive essay

Letter layout and letters of application
Layout and phrasing of a curriculum vitae
Survey reports and questionnaire design
A comparison of classroom learning with
internet-based teaching
Education is the most important factor in
national development – Discuss


Writing Tests






Academic Writing is designed for anybody who is studying (or planning to
study) at English-medium colleges and universities and has to write essays
and other assignments for exams or coursework. International students
especially ﬁnd the written demands of their courses extremely challenging.
On top of the complexity of the vocabulary of academic English they have to
learn a series of conventions in style, referencing and organisation.
Academic Writing is a ﬂexible course that allows students to work either with a
teacher or by themselves, to practise those areas which are most important for
their studies. Many students ﬁnd that they have very limited time to prepare
for their courses, and that writing is only one of several skills they need to
master. The structure of the book has been made as simple as possible to allow
users to ﬁnd what they want quickly.
The course is organised to provide maximum hands-on practice for students.
Skills are developed from writing at the paragraph level, through organising
the various sections of an essay, to discussing statistics and describing charts.
This book is divided into four parts:
1) The Writing Process guides students from the initial stage of
understanding an essay title, through reading and note-making, to the
organisation of an essay and the ﬁnal stage of proof-reading.
2) Elements of Writing deals with the key skills that are needed for all types
of assignments, such as making deﬁnitions and giving references, and is
organised alphabetically.
3) Accuracy in Writing gives remedial practice in those areas that students
tend to ﬁnd most confusing, such as deﬁnite articles and relative
pronouns, again in alphabetical order.
4) Writing Models gives examples of the types of writing that students
commonly need, including letters and survey reports.
All units are cross-referenced and a comprehensive key is provided at the end.
There is also a Writing Tests section for assessing level and progress.
Although every effort has been made to make Academic Writing as useful and
accurate as possible, if students or teachers have any comments, criticisms or
suggestions I would be very pleased to hear from them.
Stephen Bailey
Instructions to students are printed like this:
Complete the sentences with suitable words from the box below.
Cross-references in margins look like this:
cross reference

2.11 Synonyms

This means: refer to the unit on synonyms in Part 2 (Unit 11).


The Writing Process
Student Introduction
Most academic courses in English-medium colleges and universities use
essays to assess students’ work, both as coursework, for which a deadline
one or two months ahead may be given, and in exams, when an essay
often has to be completed in an hour.
The process of writing essays for coursework assignments can be shown
in a ﬂowchart:
Understand essay title/requirements
Assess reading texts – choose most appropriate
Select relevant areas of texts

Keep record for

Make notes on relevant areas,
using paraphrasing & summarising skills

Combine a variety
of sources where

Select appropriate structure for essay/plan
Organise & write main body
Organise & write introduction
Organise & write conclusion
Critically read & re-write where necessary
Final proof-reading

Part 1, The Writing Process, examines each of these stages in turn. If
students are concerned only with preparing for exam writing they could
omit the reading and note-making stages, but if they have sufﬁcient time
they should work through every unit, preferably in the order given, for
each stage builds on the previous one.
Although it is essential to understand the basic writing process, at the
same time it will be useful to be aware of the elements which contribute
to good academic writing. When practising note-making, for example, it is
helpful to be aware of the conventions of referencing, and so students
should use the cross-reference boxes to look at the unit on References and
Quotations in Part 2.

Writing Foundations



Background to Writing
Some of the terms used to describe different types of writing assignments can
be confusing. In addition, students need to be clear about the basic components
of written texts. This unit provides an introduction to these topics.

1. Students may have to produce various types of written work as part of
their courses.
Complete the table to show the main purpose of the following, and
their usual approximate length.




for formal and informal

usually less than 500


2. Organisation of texts.
a) Explain the following terms in italic:
Shorter texts, e.g. essays, are normally organised in the form:
Introduction > Main Body > Conclusion
Longer texts, e.g. dissertations and articles, may include (depending on
subject area):
Abstract > Contents > Introduction > Main Body > Case Study >
Discussion > Findings > Conclusion > Acknowledgements >
Bibliography/References > Appendices
Books may also contain:
Dedication > Foreword > Preface > Index
b) Match the deﬁnitions below to one of the terms in (2a).
i) Short summary (100–200 words) of the writer’s purpose and
(. . . . . . .)
ii) Section where various people who assisted the writer are
(. . . . . . .)
iii) Final part where extra data, too detailed for the main text, are
(. . . . . . .)
iv) List of all the books that the writer has consulted
(. . . . . . .)
v) Section looking at a particular example relevant to the
main topic
(. . . . . . .)
vi) Introductory part of book which may give the writer’s
(. . . . . . .)
vii) Alphabetical list of all topics in the text
(. . . . . . .)


Part 1: The Writing Process

cross reference


References and
3.15 Punctuation

3. Other text features.
Abbreviations are often used to save space:
Call Centres (CCs) feature prominently in the technology mix.

Italic is used to show titles and words from other languages:
Where once the titles of Armchair Theatre and The Wednesday Play celebrated …
Squatter housing (called gecekondu in Turkish) …

Footnotes are used to indicate references at the bottom of the page:
In respect of Singapore the consensus is that the government has made a difference.3

Endnotes are given to show references at the end of the article or chapter:
The market for masonry construction may be divided into housing and non-housing sectors [1]

Quotation marks are used to draw attention to a phrase, perhaps because
it is being used in an unusual or new way:
The research shows that the ‘pains of imprisonment’ for women are…

4. All types of writing consist of a number of key elements.
Label the items in the text.
a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE ORIGINS OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . It is generally agreed that the Industrial Revolution began
in Britain during the eighteenth century, with signiﬁcant
developments in the iron, steel and textile industries. But
it is less clear what caused this sudden increase in
production in key areas; different writers have examined
the availability of capital, the growth of urban
populations and the political and

Writing Foundations


d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . religious climate. All of these may have played a part, but ﬁrst
it is necessary to consider the precise nature of what is meant by
‘Industrial Revolution’.
e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Industry had existed for thousands of years prior to the
eighteenth century, but before this time society as a whole
remained agricultural. With the arrival of the ironworks and
cotton mills whole towns were dominated by industrial activity.
At the same time, agriculture itself went through signiﬁcant
changes which produced more food for the growing urban
cross reference

1.11 Organising Paragraphs
1.12 Organising the Main

5. Why are all texts divided into paragraphs? How long are paragraphs?
Read the following text, from the introduction to an essay, and divide
it into a suitable number of paragraphs.
Most people want to invest for the future, to cover unexpected ﬁnancial difﬁculties and provide
them with security. Different people, however, tend to have different requirements, so that a 25year-old just leaving university would be investing for the long-term, whereas a 60-year-old who
had just retired would probably invest for income. Despite these differences, certain principles
apply in most cases. The ﬁrst issue to consider is risk. In general, the greater the degree of risk
in investment, the higher the return. Shares, for example, which can quickly rise or fall in value,
typically have a higher yield than bonds, which offer good security but pay only about 5%.
Therefore all investors must decide how much risk is appropriate in their particular situation.
Diversiﬁcation must also be considered in an investment strategy. Wise investors usually seek
to spread their investments across a variety of geographical and business sectors. As accurate
predictions of the future are almost impossible, it is best to have as many options as possible.
A further consideration is investor involvement. Some investors opt for a high degree of
involvement and want to buy and sell regularly, constantly watching the markets. Others want to
invest and then forget about it. Personal involvement can be time-consuming and worrying, and
many prefer to leave the management of their portfolios to professional fund managers.


Part 1: The Writing Process


Developing Plans from Titles
Most written work begins with a title, and students must be quite clear what
question the title is asking before starting to plan the essay and read around the
topic. This unit deals with analysing titles and making basic plans.

1. When preparing to write an essay, it is essential to identify the main
requirements of the title. You must be clear about what areas your
teacher wants you to cover. This will then determine the organisation of
the essay. For example:
Academic qualiﬁcations are of little practical beneﬁt in the real world – Discuss.

Here the key word is discuss. Discussing involves examining the beneﬁts
and drawbacks of something.
Underline the key words in the following titles and consider what
they are asking you to do.
a) Deﬁne Information Technology (IT) and outline its main applications in medicine.
b) Compare and contrast the appeal process in the legal systems of Britain and the USA.
c) Evaluate the effect of mergers in the motor industry in the last ten years.
d) Trace the development of primary education in Britain. Illustrate some of the issues
currently facing this sector.

Note that most of the titles above have two terms in the title. You must
decide how much importance to give to each section of the essay (e.g. title
(a) might demand 10% for the deﬁnition and 90% for the outline).
2. The following terms are also commonly used in essay titles.
Match the terms to the deﬁnitions on the right.
Give a clear and simple account
Make a proposal and support it
Deal with a complex subject by giving the main points
Divide into sections and discuss each critically
Give a detailed account
Look at the various parts and their relationships
cross reference

1.10 Planning a Text
2.5 Discussion

3. Almost all essays, reports and articles have the same basic pattern of
Main body
The structure of the main body depends on what the title is asking you to
do. In the case of a discuss type essay, the main body is often divided into
two parts, one looking at the advantages of the topic and the other
looking at the disadvantages.
A plan for the ﬁrst example might look like this:

Writing Foundations


variety of different qualiﬁcations
different methods of assessment


international standards for professions, e.g. doctors
students have chance to study latest theories
qualiﬁcations lead to better salaries and promotion


many successful people don’t have qualiﬁcations
many qualiﬁed people don’t have jobs


qualiﬁcations are useful but not guarantees of success

4. Write a plan for one of the titles in (1).


main body


5. Teachers often complain that students write essays that do not answer
the question set.
Consider the following titles and decide which sections should be
included in each essay.
a) Describe the growth of the European Union since 1975 and suggest its
likely form by 2010.
A short account of European history 1900–2000
An analysis of candidates for membership before 2010
A discussion of the current economic situation in Europe
An outline of the enlargement of the EU between 1975 and now
b) Summarise the arguments in favour of privatisation and evaluate its
record in Britain.
A case study of electricity privatisation
An analysis of less successful privatisations
A study of major privatisations in the UK
A discussion of the beneﬁts achieved by privatisation
c) To what extent is tuberculosis (TB) a disease of poverty?
A deﬁnition of TB



Part 1: The Writing Process

A report on the spread of TB worldwide
A case study showing how TB relates to social class
A discussion of new methods of treating the disease
d) Nursery education is better for children than staying at home with
mother – Discuss.
A study of the growth of nurseries since 1995
A report on the development of children who remain at home until
A discussion comparing speaking ability in the two groups of
An outline of the increase of women in the labour market since 1960
e) Compare studying in a library with using the internet. Will the former
become redundant?
The beneﬁts of using books
The drawbacks of internet sources
Predicted IT developments in the next 15 years
An outline of developments in library services since 1945
6. Underline the key terms in the following titles and decide what you are
being asked to do.
Relate the development of railways to the rise of nineteenth-century
European nationalism.
Relate means to link one thing to another. The title is asking for links to be
made between the growth of railways in Europe in the nineteenth
century and the political philosophy of nationalism. The writer must
decide if there was a connection or not.
a) Identify the main causes of rural poverty in China.
b) Calculate the likely change in coffee consumption that would result
from a 10% fall in the price of coffee beans.
c) Classify the desert regions of Asia and suggest possible approaches to
halting their spread.

Reading and Note-Making



Evaluating a Text
Having understood the title and made an outline plan, your next step is probably
to read around the subject. Although you may be given a reading list, it is still
vital to be able to assess the usefulness of journal articles and books. Time spent
learning these skills will be repaid by saving you from using unreliable or irrelevant

1. When reading a text, it is important to ask yourself questions about the
value of the text. Is this text fact or opinion? If fact, is it true? If opinion,
do I agree? Can this writer be trusted? These questions can be shown in
a diagram:
Start here











2. Read the following sentences and decide ﬁrst if they are fact or opinion.
Then decide if the factual sentences are true, and if you agree with the
opinions in the other sentences.
or fact?
a) The USA has the biggest economy in the world
b) Shakespeare wrote textbooks
c) Shakespeare was a great writer
d) Smoking can be dangerous
e) Too many people (32%) smoke in Britain
f) 95% of criminals cannot read
g) Poor education causes 75% of crime

Agree or

True or


Part 1: The Writing Process

3. It can be seen that even short sentences can contain a mixture of fact and
opinion. Most longer texts, of course, consist of both.
Read the following and underline facts ( ____ ) and opinions (
a) Britain has one of the highest crime rates in the world.
b) A robbery takes place every ﬁve seconds. A car is stolen every minute. Clearly,
criminals are not afraid of the police.
c) Even if they are caught, few criminals ever appear in court.
d) Most of those who are found guilty are let off with a tiny ﬁne.
e) To restore law and order, we need many more police and much tougher punishments.

4. The previous sentences can be evaluated as follows:
a) Fact, but only partly true. Britain does not have one of the highest
overall crime rates in the world. For some crimes, e.g. car crime, the
rate is high, but other countries, e.g. South Africa and the USA, have
much higher rates of violent crime.
b) These facts may or may not be true, but it is not clear from them that
criminals are unafraid of the police.
c) Fact, but not true. A signiﬁcant number of those arrested are charged
and later prosecuted.
d) This statement is vague. A ﬁne is not letting off. What is meant by tiny?
e) This is a half-truth. More police would probably help reduce crime, but
it is not clear if stronger punishments would have that result.
From this it can be seen that even if the facts are correct, the opinions that
are expressed may not be reliable. The evaluation above would suggest
that the writer of the original text could not be trusted, and it would be
better to look for another source.
5. Evaluate the following passages in a similar way. First underline
facts and opinion, then decide if the text as a whole is trustworthy.
a) Every year large numbers of students travel abroad to study at university. Most of them
spend thousands of pounds on their degree courses. The cost of travel and
accommodation adds signiﬁcantly to their expenses. But they could save a lot of
money by studying their courses online, using the internet and email. Increasing
numbers of universities are offering tuition by the internet, and this has many
advantages for students. In the future most students are likely to stay at home and
study in front of a computer.
b) London is an ideal city for young students. Britain’s lively capital, with a population of
two million, is the perfect place to live and study. Cheap, comfortable accommodation
is always available, and transport is provided by the clean and reliable underground
system. Another advantage is the friendly citizens, who are well-known for their custom
of stopping to chat with strangers. Overall, London is probably the best place in the
world to study English.

Reading and Note-Making

c) A leading academic has claimed that European unemployment has been made worse
by high rates of home ownership. He argues that the growing trend towards owneroccupation is the best explanation for the high rates of unemployment in Europe. This,
he argues, is because home owning makes people more reluctant to move if they lose
their job. His research suggests that a strong private rented sector is the key to low
unemployment. For example, Ireland, where only 9% rent their homes, has an
unemployment rate of 8%. At the other extreme, Switzerland has a rental rate of 60%,
but only 3% are unemployed.
d) Global warming affects most people in the world, especially those living in low-lying
areas near the sea. It has been predicted that the melting of polar ice may cause the
sea to rise by as much as twelve metres by 2050. This would cause ﬂooding in many
major coastal cities, such as Tokyo. It has been suggested that the best solution to this
problem may be for mankind to become amphibious, like frogs. It is argued that life
was originally found in the sea, and so it would merely be a return to our original
e) There is shocking new evidence of the effects of heavy alcohol consumption by young
people. In Britain in 2000 nearly 800 people under 44 died from cirrhosis of the liver, a
condition which is mainly caused by excess drinking. This is over four times higher
than the number in 1970. As a result, the government is studying the possibility of
compulsory health warnings on alcohol advertising. The growing problem seems to be
due to ‘binge’ drinking among the young, when drinkers deliberately set out to get



Part 1: The Writing Process


Understanding Purpose and Register
Having decided that a text is reliable, a student must read and understand as
much as necessary for the needs of the essay. Understanding a text is not just a
matter of vocabulary; the reader needs to ﬁnd out the writer’s intentions. Is the
writer aiming to inform, persuade, describe or entertain? The answer to this
question may affect the way a student uses the material.

1. Compare the two extracts below:
a) Rebus College is seeking candidates for the position of Treasurer. As the Chief Financial
Ofﬁcer of the College, the Treasurer is responsible for working with the senior
administration and Trustees to develop and implement a ﬁnancial strategic vision for the
b) Are you wondering what to do with that jumper you were given for Christmas that’s two
sizes too small – or worse, the personal stereo that simply doesn’t work? Well, don’t
worry. Chances are, you’ll be able to get your dud gifts swapped, ﬁxed or get a refund.
And, armed with our guide to your rights, you’ll be able to get any defective products

The ﬁrst extract is written to inform the reader about a job vacancy and to
give information about the work. The second aims to persuade the reader
to buy the guide described. The language style, or register, of the extracts
is also very different. The ﬁrst uses very formal vocabulary such as
seeking, position and implement. The second uses an informal tone, the
pronoun you, the question form and informal vocabulary such as dud and
2. Read the following extracts and complete the table using one or two of the
following: inform/amuse/persuade/entertain.



a) The lower you are in the ofﬁce hierarchy, the more disgusting your sandwiches. You
can safely assume that a chicken and banana man is not a main board director. Some
people, generally those in accounts, have had the same sandwich for the past 30
years. People like to prove how busy they are by eating their sandwich at their desk.
But this is counter-productive, because every time you take a mouthful the phone rings,
and you’ll only get to ﬁnish that last mouthful just before you go home.
b) Writing for publication can be both proﬁtable and enjoyable. It’s open to everyone,
because you don’t need any qualiﬁcations. In Britain there is a huge demand for new
materials, with thousands of newspapers and magazines published every week. In
addition there are TV and radio programmes, the theatre and ﬁlms. Given this situation,
there are many openings for new writers. But the director of one of the UK’s main
writing colleges, the Writing Academy, advises: ‘to enter this market successfully you
must have good training’.

Reading and Note-Making


c) The Advertising Standards Authority makes sure that advertising is legal, decent,
honest and truthful. The Authority safeguards the public by ensuring that the rules
contained in the British Code of Advertising Practice are followed by everyone who
prepares and publishes advertisements in the UK, and that advice is freely available to
prevent problems arising. The Code lays down what is and is not acceptable in
advertisements, except for those on TV and radio.

3. Register.
Compare the tone, or register, of the following:
a) These apparent failures often result from inadequate planning and management,
especially the lack of integration of biophysical and socio-economic information into
the effort. The lack of integration of information is, in fact, a limitation that has been
emphasised by many authors working with agricultural and land use planning in recent
years (see, for instance, Vaughan et al., 1995; and Chidley and Brook, 1997).
b) It was routine – an ordinary minor operation – except for a single extraordinary point.
The patient was on an operating table in Milan. The doctors were in Washington, nearly
6,000 kilometres away. The news that, for the ﬁrst time, a transatlantic operation had
been carried out with a robot doctor in one continent copying the real-time hand
movements of a live doctor in another, introduces a new medical age.
c) Legislation identiﬁes the minimum space of 11 m3 that should be allocated to each
person and should be adhered to especially if much of the room is taken up with
essential furniture. Equally, the maximum height of a room is now accepted for such
calculations as three metres. For example, in a room 5 m ǂ 4 m ǂ 3 m (high) this
would provide initial space for ﬁve persons.

The ﬁrst extract is an example of academic register, used, for instance, in
dissertations and academic journals. This typically uses cautious language
like apparent and often, as well as academic vocabulary (biophysical, socioeconomic), and will generally include references.
The second passage is journalistic. The ﬁrst part attempts to interest the
reader by presenting the story in a simple but dramatic way (a single
extraordinary point). The importance of the news item is stressed by the
claim a new medical age. Journalism often uses current idioms like real
The last extract uses a very formal tone, suitable for a semi-legal text.
Verbs such as identiﬁes, adhered to and allocated, the use of passives (be
allocated), and special vocabulary (persons instead of the more normal
people) are typical of this register.
cross reference

2.10 Style
3.6 Formality in Verbs

4. Although it can be acceptable to use articles from newspapers,
magazines and the internet, which are often more accessible and up to
date, in academic work students need to be aware that these sources
may have less credibility, and that material written for a wider
readership tends to be less detailed.
Students need to be especially careful of taking journalistic phrases and
using them in formal essays.


Part 1: The Writing Process

5. Read the following texts and analyse the register in each case, by giving
examples of the language used.
a) Wherever possible complaints should be handled at a local level and without recourse
to unduly formal proceedings. It is therefore essential that all staff who have contact
with students are aware of the relevant procedures and are empowered to resolve
issues as they arise. Staff dealing with complaints are encouraged, whenever practical,
to meet with the complainant. Face-to-face discussions are often very helpful to
establish the precise cause of dissatisfaction, to explore the remedy sought by the
complainant and to foster a mutual understanding of the issues.
b) Studies of childhood imaginary companions have not yielded clear interactions with age
and creativity. It could be suggested that the common assumption of imaginary
companions being mainly a preschool phenomenon may have encouraged studies to
use very young children as participants. In their review of the literature, Pearson and
Mayer (1998) concluded that the experience of imaginary companions peaked in
children aged between 2.5 and 3.5 years.
c) Amazing recent research by David Storey of Warwick University shows that businesses
started by older people last longer than those started by younger entrepreneurs. He
discovered that 70% of ﬁrms started by 50–55-year-olds survived for over three years,
but only 30% for those of the 20–25 age group. As the numbers of old folk are
increasing rapidly, such ‘grey entrepreneurs’ are likely to become more common. But
what’s the secret of their remarkable success rate?





Reading and Note-Making



Selecting Key Points
After selecting and understanding the most relevant texts, the next step is
usually to make notes on the sections of the texts that relate to your topic.
Units 5–8 practise this process, which involves a number of inter-linked skills.

cross reference

1.6 Note-Making

1. The ﬁrst stage of note-making is to identify the key points in the text for
your purpose.
Study the following example (key points in italic).
Despite the overall increase in life expectancy in Britain over the past century, women still live
signiﬁcantly longer than men. In fact, in 1900 men could expect to live to 49 and women to 52,
a difference of three years, while now the ﬁgures are 74 and 79, which shows that the gap has
increased to ﬁve years. Various reasons have been suggested for this situation, such as the
possibility that men may die earlier because they take more risks. But a team of British
scientists have recently found a likely answer in the immune system, which protects the body
from diseases. The thymus is the organ which produces the T cells which actually combat
illnesses. Although both sexes suffer from deterioration of the thymus as they age, women
appear to have more T cells in their bodies than men of the same age. It is this, the scientists
believe, that gives women better protection from potentially fatal diseases such as inﬂuenza
and pneumonia.

Having selected these sections of the text, you can then go on to make
notes from them:
British women live longer than men: 79/74
reasons? new research suggests immune system > thymus > T cells
women have more T cells than men = better protection

2. Read the following and then choose a suitable title that expresses the key
Dean Kamen is a 50-year-old American eccentric who is also a multi-millionaire. He always
wears blue denim shirts and jeans, even when visiting his friend, the president, in the White
House. He ﬂies to work by helicopter, which he also uses for visiting his private island off the
coast of Connecticut. As an undergraduate Kamen developed the ﬁrst pump that would give
regular doses of medicine to patients. The patent for this and other original medical inventions
has produced a huge income, allowing him to run his own research company which, among
many other projects, has produced the iBot, the world’s ﬁrst wheelchair which can climb stairs.

3. In the following text, three key points are in italic. Decide on their order of
a) The majority of people in the small Derbyshire village of Poolsbrook have joined a
scheme to make power from rubbish. b)Methane gas will be collected from the local
rubbish tip and will be used to heat houses more cheaply and generate electricity. The
villagers, who have been affected by the closure of the local coal mines, suffer from


Part 1: The Writing Process

unemployment, so cheap heating is especially important for them. They have raised the £2
million cost from development agencies. c)The new system, which will be the ﬁrst of its
kind in Europe, will lead to a healthier environment by cutting CO2 emissions, and should
also create three full-time jobs.

4. Underline four key points in the following text.
Lord May, the president of the Royal Society, has claimed that the world is facing a wave of
extinctions similar to the ﬁve mass extinctions of past ages. He calculates that the current rate
of extinction is between 100 and 1,000 times faster than the historical average. The cause of
previous extinctions, such as the one which killed the dinosaurs, is uncertain, but was probably
an external event such as collision with a comet.
However the present situation is caused by human consumption of plants, which has resulted
in a steady increase in agriculture and a consequent reduction in habitat for animals. Although
many people are still hungry, food production has increased by 100% since 1965.
Lord May also pointed out that it was very difﬁcult to make accurate estimates as nobody knew
how many species of animals lived on the planet. So far 1.5 million species had been named,
but the true ﬁgure might be as high as 100 million. Our ignorance of this made it almost
impossible to work out the actual rate of extinction. However, the use of intelligent guesses
suggests that losses over the past century were comparable with the extinctions of earlier
periods, evidence of which is found in the fossil record.

5. When preparing to write an essay you may be concerned with only one
aspect of a text, so your key points should relate only to the topic you are
a) You are preparing to write an essay on ‘Marketing – art or
science?’ Read the text below and underline the sections relevant
to your essay.
The Water Companies Association (WCA) has claimed that bottled water costs 700 times more
than tap water, but is often of inferior quality. The chief executive of the WCA pointed out that
although bottled water advertising often associated the product with sport and health there was
no truth in this link. The reality, she said, was that the packaging of bottled water was
environmentally damaging, since millions of empty bottles had to be disposed of in rubbish
tips. 2% of samples of bottled water failed a purity test conducted by the Drinking Water
Inspectorate, while only 0.3% of tap water samples failed the same test. Labels on bottled water

Reading and Note-Making


often referred to ‘spring’ and ‘natural water’, which were meaningless phrases. In addition,
bottled water was imported from as far as Korea and Kenya, which was a waste of resources.
These criticisms, however, were rejected by the British Soft Drinks Association, which argued
that bottled water was a successful business founded on giving the customers choice, quality
and convenience.

b) You are preparing an essay on ‘The application of DNA research to
the development of vaccines’. Read the text and underline the
relevant sections.

The plague, which ﬁrst struck Europe in the sixth century, was one of the great disasters of
history. In the fourteenth century it became the Black Death, when it may have killed one third of
the entire population. The microbe that causes the disease lives on rats, and is passed on to
humans by the bite of a ﬂea. It still survives today, though outbreaks are less deadly: the World
Health Organisation receives reports of 3,000 cases annually. Scientists believe that the microbe
was originally a stomach infection, but evolved into a more lethal disease about 1,500 years ago.
Now the genetic code of the plague bacterium has been ‘read’ by scientists; a total of 465
million ‘letters’ of DNA. They believe that this will help in the development of vaccines for the
plague, one of which has begun clinical trials. In parts of Africa drug-resistant strains of the
disease have evolved, which gives added importance to the work, as does the threat that the
plague might be used as an agent of bacteriological warfare.


Part 1: The Writing Process


Effective note-making is a key writing skill, with a number of practical uses.
Good note-making techniques lead to accurate essays. Although you are the
only person who will read your notes, clarity and organisation are still

1. What are the main reasons for note-making?
Add to the ideas below.
a) to avoid plagiarism
b) …………
c) …………
d) …………
2. Effective note-making is part of a sequence.
What comes before and after?


3. You are writing an essay on ‘Conservation at sea’. You ﬁnd the following
article in a magazine called Science South, volume 27 (2002). The author is
J. Doyle. Read the text (key points in italic) and make notes.
Before the British occupation of the Falkland Islands in 1833 most of the sailors who went
there were mainly interested in collecting oil and skins from the whales, seals and penguins
which ﬂourished in the South Atlantic. The British introduced sheep farming, but since this
became less proﬁtable after the 1960s the islanders have been forced to pay more attention
to the contents of the island waters.
These waters are rich in squid, and the sale of ﬁshing licences for this harvest has funded
research to allow the stocks to be managed efﬁciently. There are two kinds of squid around
the Falklands; Illex is eaten in East Asia, while Loligo is popular in Spain. The latter was found
to breed at two periods in the year; one season is May to July and the other is October and
November. This second period, which is summer in the South Atlantic, coincides with the
local penguin breeding season and makes the baby squid more vulnerable. As a result, the
scientists suggested that the ﬁshing season for Loligo should be postponed for a few
months to allow the stock to recover, and when this was done the ﬁshermen found that they
had a better catch than before.
The other squid, Illex, was found to have a different pattern, swimming south from Brazil to
the Falklands in summer, and then back north again. To deal with a species that migrates
through the waters of several countries it has been necessary to set up an agreement
between the governments concerned to restrict the ﬁshing season in order to allow squid
numbers to build up.

Reading and Note-Making

cross reference

2.9 References and Quotations
3.1 Abbreviations


4. A set of notes for your essay might look like this:
Source: Doyle, J. (2002) Science South 27 pp. 24–28.
Falkland Islands – research programme found:

a) Illex (E. Asia) – N/S migration pattern from Brazil
b) Loligo (Spain) – breeds
i) May – July
ii) Oct – Nov

a) postpone Loligo ﬁshing (improved catch)
b) restrict Illex ﬁshing by int. agreement
Note the use of headings, listings, abbreviations (‘N/S’) and symbols. You
need to develop your own style for note-making, as you will have to read
them later. Do not abbreviate too much, or you may ﬁnd the notes
impossible to understand in the future.
5. You have been told to write an essay on ‘Malaria – can it be controlled?’ You
decide to make notes on the following article from a magazine called
Medical Report (Volume 34 1998, pp. 78–86). The author’s name is Irene
Nemecova. Make notes on the whole text in the box below.
Drug-resistant strains of malaria, already one of the world’s major killers, are steadily spreading
across the globe. The deadly strains have established themselves in South East Asia and South
America, and have recently begun to spread across India and Africa. Formerly under control in
many areas, the disease now threatens two billion people living in more than 100 countries.


Part 1: The Writing Process

Estimates suggest that there are now more than 350 million cases of malaria a year – a total four
times the level of the early 1970s. In Africa alone the disease kills one million children each year.
Several factors are responsible for this disturbing development. Spreading world poverty has
deprived nations of funds for sanitation, so that many health projects have been stopped, while
increased movements of migrant workers and tourists have carried infections more rapidly from
one country to another. At the same time, the overuse of drugs, especially antibiotics, has led to
the establishment of resistant strains of diseases.
As well as this, hopes that genetic engineers might soon develop the world’s ﬁrst malaria
vaccine, a long-sought goal, have been questioned recently by several scientists. ‘There are so
many strains of malaria parasite,’ said one scientist, ‘and each is able to alter its chemical
surface and trick its way past the body’s defences. We’d need a remarkable vaccine to cope
with that. However, a malaria vaccine is now undergoing human trials and may be available for
use if proved successful.’

6. You are preparing to write an essay on ‘The impact of climate on history’.
The text below is taken from page 221 of a book called Volcanic Disasters
by E.B. Pitnam, published in 1993. Underline the relevant points and make
One of the greatest explosions in modern history occurred in 1815, when an Indonesian
volcano called Mt. Tambora blew up. The eruption involved about 100 cubic kilometres of
material being blown into the sky, with huge loss of life both on land and sea. Large quantities
of volcanic dust were ejected into the atmosphere, and this dust gradually spread around the
world, causing alarming events on the other side of the world.
In New England in north eastern USA farmers were hit by bitterly cold weather in June and
July 1816. Much of the harvest was lost due to repeated waves of frost and snow in the
middle of summer. The same pattern was recorded in Europe, where agriculture was still
suffering the effects of the Napoleonic Wars. In France wheat prices reached their highest
point of the century in 1817.
As European demand for food rose, prices doubled in America. Although some proﬁted from
the shortages, others were driven to emigrate into the unexplored lands to the west. Numbers
leaving Vermont, for example, increased by 100% between 1816–17.

Reading and Note-Making



Paraphrasing involves changing a text so that it is quite dissimilar to the source
yet retains all the meaning. This skill is useful in several areas of academic work,
but this unit focuses on using paraphrasing in note-making and summary writing.
Effective paraphrasing is vital in academic writing to avoid the risk of plagiarism.

1. Although paraphrasing techniques are used in summary writing,
paraphrasing does not aim to shorten the length of a text, merely to
restate the text.
For example,
Evidence of a lost civilisation has been found off the coast of China.

could be paraphrased:
Remains of an ancient society have been discovered in the sea near China.
cross reference

2.11 Synonyms

2. A good paraphrase is signiﬁcantly different from the wording of the
original, without altering the meaning at all.
Read the text below and then decide which is the best paraphrase, (a)
or (b).
Ancient Egypt collapsed in about 2180 BC. Studies conducted of the mud from the River Nile
showed that at this time the mountainous regions which feed the Nile suffered from a prolonged
drought. This would have had a devastating effect on the ability of Egyptian society to feed itself.
a) The sudden ending of Egyptian civilisation over 4,000 years ago was probably caused
by changes in the weather in the region to the south. Without the regular river ﬂooding
there would not have been enough food.
b) Research into deposits of the Egyptian Nile indicate that a long dry period in the
mountains at the river’s source may have led to a lack of water for irrigation around
2180BC, which was when the collapse of Egyptian society began.

3. Techniques.
a) Changing vocabulary:
studies > research
society > civilisation
mud > deposits

b) Changing word class:
Egypt (n.) > Egyptian (adj.)
mountainous regions (adj. + n.) > in the mountains (n.)

c) Changing word order:
Ancient Egypt collapsed > the collapse of Egyptian society began

4. Find synonyms for the words in italic.
a) Sleep scientists have found that traditional remedies for insomnia, such as counting
sheep, are ineffective.

Sleep researchers have found that established cures for insomnia, for instance counting sheep,
do not work.


Part 1: The Writing Process

b) Instead, they have found that imagining a pleasant scene is likely to send you to sleep
c) The research team divided 50 insomnia sufferers into three groups.
d) One group was told to imagine a waterfall, while another group tried sheep counting.

5. Change the word class of the words in italic, and then re-write the sentences.
a) A third group was given no special instructions about going to sleep.

A third group was not specially instructed about going to sleep.
b) It was found that the group thinking of waterfalls fell asleep 20 minutes quicker.
c) Mechanical tasks like counting sheep are apparently too boring to make people sleepy.

6. Change the word order of the following sentences.
a) There are many practical applications to research into insomnia.

Research into insomnia has many practical applications.
b) About one in ten people are thought to suffer from severe insomnia.
c) It is calculated that the cost of insomnia for the American economy may be $35 billion a

7. Combine all these techniques to paraphrase the paragraph as fully as possible.
Sleep scientists have found that traditional remedies for insomnia, such as counting sheep, are
ineffective. Instead, they have found that imagining a pleasant scene is likely to send you to
sleep quickly. The research team divided 50 insomnia sufferers into three groups. One group
imagined watching a waterfall, while another group tried sheep counting. A third group was
given no special instructions about going to sleep. It was found that the group thinking of
waterfalls fell asleep 20 minutes quicker. Mechanical tasks like counting sheep are apparently
too boring to make people sleepy. There are many practical applications for research into
insomnia. About one in ten people are thought to suffer from severe insomnia. It is calculated
that the cost of insomnia for the American economy may be $35 billion a year.

8. Use the same techniques to paraphrase the following text.
a winter population of less than 200 people. However, a recent report from a New Zealand
by the rubbish of nearly 60 years’ operations.
Despite popular belief, the polar continent is really a desert, with less precipitation than the
Sahara. In the past, snowfall slowly covered the waste left behind, like beer cans or dead
ponies, but now, possibly due to global warming, the ice is thinning and these are being
exposed. Over 10 years ago the countries using Antarctica agreed a treaty on waste disposal,
under which everything is to be taken home, and this is slowly improving the situation.
However, the scientists do not want everything removed. The remains of very early expeditions
at the beginning of the twentieth century have acquired historical value and will be preserved.

Reading and Note-Making



Summary Writing
Making summaries is a common activity in everyday life. If a friend asks us about
a book we are reading, we do not tell them about everything in the book. Instead,
we make a summary of the most interesting and important aspects. The same
principle applies to summarising in academic writing.

1. Choose four of the topics below and write summaries in no more than
twelve words each.
Birmingham is a large industrial city in the English West Midlands.

a) Your home town
b) Bill Gates
c) Your academic subject
d) The last book you read
e) A ﬁlm you saw recently
f) Your mother/father
Look at the summaries you have written above. What are the features
of a successful summary?
2. Summary writing is an important skill in academic work.
Different kinds of summaries are needed in different situations.
List as many study uses for summary writing as you can think of.
making notes from lectures

3. In essay writing students often have to summarise part of a book or
journal article.
The summary may be just one or two sentences, to explain the main idea
of the article, and perhaps compare it with another summarised text, or it
might be necessary to include much more detail. In other words, a
summary can range from 1–2% of the original to more than 50%:
summarising is a ﬂexible tool.
At ﬁrst students need to follow a series of steps to summarise successfully.
With practice the number of steps may be reduced, as the process
becomes more automatic.
Complete the list of stages in a successful summary.
a) Read the text carefully and check key vocabulary.
d) Write the summary using the notes, re-organising the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e) Check the summary to make sure no . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . have been
omitted or distorted.


Part 1: The Writing Process

4. Read the following text and compare the summaries. Decide which is best,
giving reasons.
Researchers in France and the United States have recently reported that baboons are able to
think abstractly. It has been known for some time that chimpanzees are capable of abstract
thought, but baboons are a more distant relation to mankind. In the experiment, scientists
trained two baboons to use a personal computer and a joystick. The animals had to match
computer designs which were basically the same but had superﬁcial differences. The baboons
performed better than would be expected by chance. The researchers describe their study in an
article in the Journal of Experimental Psychology.
a) French and American scientists have shown that baboons have the ability to think in an
abstract way. The animals were taught to use a computer, and then had to select similar
patterns, which they did at a rate better than chance.
b) Baboons are a kind of monkey more distant from man than chimpanzees. Although it is
known that chimpanzees are able to think abstractly, until recently it was not clear if
baboons could do the same. But new research has shown that this is so.
c) According to a recent article in the Journal of Experimental Psychology, baboons are
able to think in an abstract way. The article describes how researchers trained two
baboons to use a personal computer and a joystick. The animals did better than would
be expected.
cross reference

1.5 Selecting Key Points

5. Read the following text and underline the key points.
Indian researchers are trying to ﬁnd out if there is any truth in old sayings which claim to
predict the weather. In Gujarat farmers have the choice of planting either peanuts, which are
more proﬁtable in wet years, or castor, which does better in drier conditions. The difference
depends on the timing of the monsoon rains, which can arrive at any time between the
beginning and the middle of June. Farmers, however, have to decide what seeds to sow in April
or May.
There is a local saying, at least a thousand years old, which claims that the monsoon starts 45
days after the ﬂowering of a common tree, Cassia ﬁstula. Dr Kanani, an agronomist from
Gujarat Agricultural University, has been studying the relationship since 1996, and has found
that the tree does successfully predict the approximate date of the monsoon’s arrival.

6. Complete the following notes of the key points.
c) Used by farmers to select peanuts (for wet) or . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d) Dr Kanani of Gujarat Agricultural University has found that . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Reading and Note-Making

cross reference

3.5 Conjunctions


7. Link the notes together to make a complete summary using conjunctions
where necessary. Check the ﬁnal text for factual accuracy.
Indian scientists are checking …………

8. The original text was about 150 words. The summary above is about 50, so
the original has been reduced by about 65%. However, it might be necessary
to summarise still further. Using the same techniques, summarise the
summary in about 20 words.


Part 1: The Writing Process


Combining Sources
Most essays require the writer to read more than one book or article. The
differences between the ideas of different writers may be the focus of the essay.
This unit examines ways of presenting such contrasting views.

cross reference


References and
3.16 Referring Verbs

1. Read the example, from a study of women’s experience of prison.
According to Giallombardo (1966), women alleviated the pains of imprisonment by developing
kinship links with other inmates. Similarly Heffernan (1972) found that adaptation to prison was
facilitated by the creation of a pseudo-family. Owen (1998) also notes that the female subculture is based on personal relationships with other women inmates. Others, however, believe
that the subculture in women’s prisons is undergoing a gradual shift that more closely
resembles that of male prisons. Fox (1982) states, for example, that the cooperative caring
prison community that has embodied characterizations of female prisons has evolved into a
more dangerous and competitive climate.

a) How many writers are mentioned?
b) What is the function of the words in italics?
c) What phrase is used to mark the point in the text where there is a shift
from one point of view to another?
2. Below are two sources used for an essay titled ‘Should genetically modiﬁed
(GM) foods have a role in future agriculture?’ Read the sources ﬁrst, then
the essay extract.
Genetic modiﬁcation (GM) is the most recent application of biotechnology to food, which can
also be called genetic engineering or genetic manipulation. The phrase ‘Genetically Modiﬁed
Organisms’ or GMOs is used frequently in the scientiﬁc literature to describe plants and animals
which have had DNA introduced into them by means other than the ‘natural’ process of an egg
and a sperm.
New species have always evolved through natural selection by means of random genetic
variation. Early farmers used this natural variation to selectively breed wild animals, plants and
even micro-organisms such as yogurt cultures and yeasts. They produced domesticated
variants better suited to the needs of humans, long before the scientiﬁc basis for the process
was understood. Despite this long history of careful improvement, such procedures are now
labelled ‘interfering with nature’.

Genetic modiﬁcation (GM) is in fact far more than a mere development of selective breeding
techniques. Combining genetic material from species that cannot breed naturally is an
interference in areas which may be highly dangerous. The consequences of this kind of
manipulation cannot be foreseen.
It seems undeniable that these processes may lead to major beneﬁts in food production and the
environment. There is no doubt, for example, that some medical advances may have saved
millions of lives. However, this level of technology can contain a strong element of risk.
Our ignorance of the long-term effects of releasing GM plants or even animals into the
environment means that this step should only be taken after very careful consideration.

Reading and Note-Making


It has been claimed that GM technology is no different from breeding techniques which have
been practised by man for thousands of years. Source A states that this process is similar to
natural selection and remarks: ‘such procedures are now labelled “interfering with nature”’. On
the other hand Source B considers that, although GM technology could bring considerable
beneﬁts in medicine and agriculture, it is quite different to traditional processes of selection. He
believes that crossing the species barrier is a dangerous step and that there is insufﬁcient
knowledge of the long-term results of such developments.

3. The essay writer uses a mixture of direct quotes and summaries of
a) Find an example of each.
b) What phrase does the writer use to mark the point where he moves
from dealing with Source A to Source B?
c) List all the phrases used to introduce summaries.
It has been claimed that …………

4. You are preparing to write an essay titled ‘The social effects of tourism in
developing countries’. Read the sources and then complete the paragraph
comparing their views.
When countries begin to provide facilities for mass tourism, such as hotels and leisure
complexes, there is an immediate demand for labour. Work is created for cleaners, waiters,
gardeners and drivers on a scale which may signiﬁcantly boost the local economy. Such work
may provide opportunities to learn valuable new skills. For many, these semi-skilled jobs
provide an attractive alternative to subsistence agriculture or ﬁshing, while at the same time the
tax revenues from their earnings increase the national income.


Part 1: The Writing Process

One inevitable feature of tourism’s growth is the creation of badly-paid, seasonal jobs in holiday
resorts. Much of this work combines insecurity with long hours of work in poor conditions. In
Thailand, for example, there are cases of hotel maids working 15 hour days for less than $4.
Moreover, the combination of wealthy tourists being served by exploited waitresses is likely to
increase social tensions in these areas. Another risk is that natural or human disasters such as

It has been claimed that the development of tourism played a major part in helping to
modernise parts of Franco’s Spain in the 1960s. The presence of easy-going, afﬂuent visitors
apparently encouraged the locals to learn new skills and open new businesses. Despite this
positive interpretation, many examples could be presented where the arrival of rich and idle
tourists has been an encouragement for crime, prostitution and other less desirable aspects of
the modern economy. Much seems to depend on the economic alternatives offered by the
society, and of course the scale of tourist arrivals.

It has been argued that tourism can have a very positive social
inﬂuence on a developing country.

Writing stages


10. Planning a Text
Outline planning was examined in Unit 2. Planning gives essays a coherent
structure and, most importantly, helps to ensure that they answer the question
set. Although all essays need planning, they are written in two different
situations: as coursework, and in exams. Clearly, under the time pressure of an
exam, planning is more hurried, but also more critical. This unit looks at planning
ﬁrst in exams and then for coursework.

cross reference


Developing Plans from

1. In the case of essays written in exams, it is best to begin planning by
analysing the title and then writing down any ideas that seem relevant.
This process is called brainstorming, and at ﬁrst ideas are collected in any
Read the title below and add more ideas to the list.
Tourism is the world’s most important industry. Why is this, and will it continue to be so?

development of jet aircraft
mass tourism began in the 1960s
increased leisure time in rich countries
problems of overcrowding, pollution

cross reference

1.12 Organising the Main
2.5 Discussion

2. Having assembled your ideas, it is then necessary to ﬁnd a suitable
framework for the essay.
A structure may be suggested by the title of the essay. There are a number
of common structures used in essay writing.
Which would be most suitable for the title above?
a) Time – usually from the past to the present or the future, as in a story.
b) Comparison – two or more topics are examined and compared, one
after another.
c) For and against – the advantages and disadvantages of two systems
are discussed.
3. Complete the plan for the title in (1) using ideas from (1).
a) Introduction: historical background/current problems, e.g.
b) Main body:
i) mass tourism began in 1960s with development of jet aircraft
c) Conclusion:


Part 1: The Writing Process

4. Decide which of the three frameworks in (2) would be most suitable for the
following titles.
a) Prisons make criminals worse, and should be abolished – Discuss.
b) In the UK, radio is gaining audience while TV is losing viewers. Consider possible
c) Trace the development of mass production and evaluate its main beneﬁts.
d) ‘Examinations can never be fair.’ To what extent is this true?
e) The internet will make books redundant in twenty years – Discuss.
cross reference



5. Study the title below and the ideas collected for the essay. Add to the list if
possible. Then choose a suitable framework and complete the plan below.
Compare the effects of advertising on TV with advertising in newspapers. What are the main
differences? Are there any similarities?

TV adverts more lively, dynamic
newspaper adverts can be targeted at a special market, e.g. local
TV advertising very expensive (to make and show)
many people video TV and fast-forward adverts
newspaper adverts can be prepared more quickly
TV adverts can reach a wider audience

a) Introduction: role of newspapers and TV in society today
b) Main body:
c) Conclusion:
6. Choose one of the titles below and note at least six ideas that might be used
in the essay. Then select a suitable framework and write a plan.
a) In twenty years’ time most learning will be online. The internet will
replace the classroom.
b) Describe the education system in your country and suggest how it
could be improved.

Writing Stages



7. In the case of longer essays, written as coursework, planning will
normally be a two-stage process:
a) before reading: using the title to develop an outline structure
b) after reading: modifying the outline and adding detail
Study the plan below. Suggest how it could be modiﬁed/improved.
Title: Analyse the role of the private sector in the modern English education system.
a) 550,000 children at private schools in England & Wales
b) Negative effects on state system – better pupils removed
c) 7% of all pupils in England & Wales attend private schools
d) Reasons for using private sector, e.g. smaller classes, better results in exams
e) 20% of university intake from private schools

Positive effects on state system – fewer pupils to teach/provides competition



Part 1: The Writing Process

11. Organising Paragraphs
Paragraphs are the basic building blocks of texts. Well-organised paragraphs not
only help readers understand the argument; they also help writers to structure
their ideas effectively.

1. Read the following paragraph.
The way we use banks is currently changing. This is partly because of the introduction of
new technology in the last ten years. The personal computer and the internet, for instance,
allow customers to view their accounts at home and perform operations such as moving
money between accounts. At the same time banks are being reorganised in ways that affect
both customers and staff. In the past ﬁve years over 3,000 bank branches have closed in
Britain. The banks have discovered that stafﬁng call centres is cheaper than running a branch

The structure of the paragraph is:

cross reference



1. topic sentence

The way we use banks …

2. reason

This is partly because …

3. example

The personal computer …

4. details

At the same time banks …

5. further details

In the past ﬁve …

6. reason

The banks have discovered …

2. A paragraph is a collection of sentences that deal with one subject.
All paragraphs contain a topic sentence, which is often, but not always,
the ﬁrst. Other components vary according to the nature of the topic.
Introductory paragraphs often contain deﬁnitions, and descriptive
paragraphs include a lot of detail. Other sentences give examples and
offer reasons and restatements.
3. Read and analyse the following paragraph.
In recent years all British universities have adopted the semester system. A semester is a period
of time which lasts for half the academic year. Semester 1, for example, starts in September
and ﬁnishes in January. Previously the academic year had been divided into three terms:
autumn, winter and spring. Most courses consist of modules that last for one semester, and
exams are held at the end of each. Britain began using semesters to make it easier for
international students to move from one country to another.

Writing Stages


4. The sentences below make up a paragraph, but have been mixed up. Use the
table to re-write the sentences in the correct order.
a) For many centuries it has been the centre of the country’s economic, cultural and social

b) 500 years ago it had become a major river port for ships trading with Europe.
c) Its dominance is due to its strategic site near the lowest crossing point of the River
d) London has been the English capital for over 1000 years.
1. topic

2. restatement

3. reason

4. detail

cross reference



5. The sentences below form a paragraph, but they have been mixed up.
Rewrite them in the box overleaf in the correct order and analyse the
paragraph structure.
a) This was because of problems with the roof design.
b) Mark Roberts will watch a display of jazz dance and disco.
c) The opening has been delayed by almost three months.
d) The new Leisure Centre will be opened on May 15th by the Sports Minister.
e) The architects are currently being sued for £2 m. by the local council.


Part 1: The Writing Process






cross reference

1.13 Introductions

6. You are writing an essay on ‘Prisons make criminals worse, and should be
abolished’. Using the notes below, complete the introductory paragraph,
following the structure provided.
Modern prison system developed in 19th century
Prisons intended to isolate, punish and reform
Steep rise in number of prisoners in last 20 years
Critics claim they are ‘university of crime’
Essay aims to consider how effective prisons are

1. detail

The modern prison system

2. reason

The system had three basic aims:

3. detail

In the last 20 years

4. detail

Prisons are commonly criticised

5. topic

This essay attempts to evaluate

Writing Stages

cross reference



7. Using the second set of notes, write the next paragraph of the essay.
prisons offer society three apparent beneﬁts
provide punishment by deprivation of freedom
offenders are segregated so cannot re-offend
possibility of reform through training programmes
1. topic

2. detail

3. detail

4. detail

8. Using the next set of notes, write the third paragraph.
Prisons appear to be failing in 21st century
Prison population steadily rising in many countries
Many prisoners are ‘repeat offenders’
Few prisons able to offer effective reform programmes
Prison conditions often brutal and degrading
1. topic







Part 1: The Writing Process

12. Organising the Main Body
This and the next two units deal with the organisation of the main body, the
introduction and the conclusion. In the case of longer assignments it is often
better to write the main body before the introduction. With shorter essays, for
example in exams, this is impractical, and the introduction has to be written

1. The structure of the main body depends on the length of the essay and
the subject of study.
Longer essays may include the following sections:
Experimental set-up – a technical description of the organisation of an
Methods – how the research was carried out
Findings/results – what was discovered by the research/experiment
Case study – a description of an example of the topic being researched
Discussion – an examination of the issues and the writer’s verdict
2. The sections below comprise the main body of an essay titled ‘Studying
abroad: an analysis of costs and beneﬁts’. Decide on the heading of each
section and the best order for them.
a) Comparisons of the advantages and disadvantages that students mentioned about
study abroad and an attempt to decide if most students beneﬁted from the
b) Detailed description of the survey carried out by the researcher.
c) An extensive study of two students (from different cultures) studying in Britain who
were interviewed by the researcher.
d) A report of what the survey found, with statistical analysis.
cross reference

1.10 Planning a Text

3. Shorter essays (in exams, for example) tend to have simpler structures:
For and against

















Match the examples of plans for main bodies below to the structures
i) beneﬁt of prisons – deterrence
ii) beneﬁt of prisons – removes dangerous people from society

Writing Stages


iii) drawback of prisons – prisoners lose contact with non-criminal society
iv) drawback of prisons – prisoners become bitter and learn criminal techniques
b) In the UK, radio is gaining audience while TV is losing viewers. Consider possible reasons.
i) radio can be listened to in many situations
ii) radio offers a wide variety of programme types
iii) radio does not demand full attention, e.g. background music
iv) TV lacks ﬂexibility, needs full attention
v) economic factors: TV more expensive to buy/programmes more expensive to make
vi) high production costs may result in poor quality of programmes

4. Inside the main body, ideas need to be presented in the most logical
fashion, linked together to form a coherent argument.
Re-organise the notes below to achieve the best structure.
a) Trace the development of the factory system and evaluate its social impact.
workers forced to adopt a regular timetable to maintain production
ﬁrst factories employed unskilled workers; often women and children
early employers enforced strict codes of discipline
factories originally sited to make use of water power (in 18th C.)
later some employers offered social beneﬁts, e.g. housing/education
in nineteenth century factories built near canals/railways for access to markets
b) Lowering the minimum school leaving age to 14 would allow teachers to focus on
teaching the students who wanted to be in school – Discuss.
if they left at 14, students would be unlikely to ﬁnd proper jobs
some students more suited to work that doesn’t require qualiﬁcations
problem students waste everybody’s time, including their own
effort should be made in primary schools to prevent pupils falling behind
many older students have lost interest in learning and disrupt classes
in future, almost all jobs will demand academic skills
cross reference



5. It is useful to mark the beginning of new paragraphs or the introduction
of new subjects with special phrases.
To introduce a new paragraph/topic:
The main/chief factor/issue is ...
Turning to the subject of …
Moving on to the question of …
Another important area is ...
………… must also be examined

To add information inside a paragraph:
a) Firstly, ...

The ﬁrst point ...

In the ﬁrst place ...

b) Secondly, ...
Moreover …

Next, .... Then, ...

In addition …

c) Finally, ...



Part 1: The Writing Process

6. Complete with suitable phrases the following extract from an essay on
‘British weather’.
The British are famous all over the world for their obsession with the weather, but in fact
the reality is more complex than people often believe. This essay sets out to examine
some of the principal inﬂuences on the weather of the British Isles.
Britain, situated on the extreme western edge of the European continent. This means
that a variety of weather types can dominate the country. ................................... the
Atlantic Ocean can produce warm wet winds, especially in winter. ..............................
the land mass of Europe can create anticyclonic weather, hot in summer and cold in
winter. .................. the polar region to the north can generate cold winds at most
seasons of the year.
signiﬁcant differences between regions. ............................... the south of England can
be much warmer than the north of Scotland, especially in winter. ........................ the
west of Britain is usually much wetter than the east. ........................... even in the
same district, hilly areas will be cooler and wetter than the lowlands.
............................................ is seasonal change, which in Britain is less distinct than in
many countries. ....................... the Atlantic moderates extreme types of weather, and
....................... the weather pattern can change radically from year to year. As a result
warm days in winter and chilly summer winds frequently surprise visitors to this

Writing Stages


13. Introductions
An introduction is crucial, not just for what it says about the topic, but for what
it tells the reader about the writer’s style and approach. Unless you can
introduce the subject clearly the reader may not wish to continue.

1. What is the purpose of the introduction to an essay?
Choose from the items below:
a) to deﬁne some of the terms in the title
b) to give your opinion of the subject
c) to show that you have read some research on the subject
d) to show that the subject is worth writing about
e) to explain which areas of the subject you will deal with
f) to get the reader’s attention with a provocative idea
g) to show how you intend to organise your essay
cross reference



2. It may be necessary to clarify some of the words in the title.
This is to make it clear that you understand the title.
Discuss the impact of privatisation on the British economy.
Privatisation is the process of transferring certain industries from state control to the private
sector, which began in Britain in 1981 with British Telecom …

3. In longer assignments it is important to show that you are familiar with
current research.
This can be demonstrated using phrases such as:
A number of researchers have examined this issue, notably ...
Various investigations have explored the subject, especially ...

4. You must show the importance of the topic.
This can be either in the academic world or as a contemporary issue of
wider relevance.

5. As you are writing only an essay, not a book, it is obviously not possible
to deal with all aspects of your subject.
Therefore you need to explain what limits you are setting on the
discussion, and possibly give reasons for this.
Only privatisations completed between 1981 and 1992 will be dealt with, as it is too soon to
assess the impact of later developments.

6. For your own beneﬁt, as well as the reader’s, it is useful to outline how
the essay will be organised.
An assessment will ﬁrst be made of the performance of the privatised industries themselves, on
an individual basis, and then the performance of the economy as a whole will be examined.


Part 1: The Writing Process

7. Study the following extracts from introductions below and decide which of
the functions in the box they fulﬁl.

explain starting point for research
state aims/goals
refer to recent research in same area
give results of research
provide background information
concede limitations

a) In many companies, the knowledge of most employees remains untapped for solving
problems and generating new ideas.
b) This paper positions Call Centres at the core of the mix of technologies public
administration can use to innovate e-commerce.
c) In fact, this is one of our main ﬁndings based on an extended sample period up to
d) Admittedly, the tenor of my argument is tentative and exploratory.
e) The purpose of this paper is to investigate changes in the incidence of extreme warm
and cold temperatures over the globe since 1870.

To what extent do increases in the food available per person at a national level
contribute to reductions in child malnutrition? This question has generated a wide range
of responses (Haddad et al., 1997).

8. There is no such thing as a standard introduction, and much depends on
the nature of the research and the length of the essay.
However, for a relatively short essay written under exam conditions the
following are worth including, in this order.
a) Deﬁnitions of any terms in the title that are unclear
b) Some background information
c) Reference to other writers who have discussed this topic
d) Your purpose in writing and the importance of the subject
e) The points you are going to make/areas you are going to cover
cross reference



9. Prepare to write an introduction to an essay with the title ‘Higher
education should be available to everyone – Discuss’ by answering the
questions below.
a) Which terms in the title might need deﬁning?
b) What background information could you give?
c) How can you show the relevance of this topic, in either Britain or
another country?
d) How are you going to limit your discussion, geographically, historically
or both?
e) How will you organise the main body of the essay?

Writing Stages


As this is a short essay, it is not necessary to mention sources in the
10. Write the introduction (about 100 words), using your answers from (9)
and the notes provided below.

higher education (HE) = university education


increasing demand for HE worldwide puts pressure on national
budgets > many states seek to shift costs to students


in most countries degree = key to better jobs & opportunities

discussion points

if sts. have to pay more of cost, discriminates against poorer families;
how to keep HE open to able students from all backgrounds?

11. Write an introduction to an essay on one of the following subjects, or
choose a subject from your own discipline.
a) Compare the urbanisation process in the First and the Third Worlds.
b) Assess the importance of public transport in the modern city.
c) ‘Lawyers are inﬂating the cost of medicine’ – Discuss.
d) To what extent is a democratic system necessary for economic development?


Part 1: The Writing Process

14. Conclusions
There is usually a link between the starting point, i.e. the title, and the
conclusion. If the title is asking a question, the conclusion should contain the
answer. The reader may look at the conclusion ﬁrst to get a quick idea of the
main arguments or points.

1. Not every academic essay has a conclusion.
In some cases it may be linked to the discussion section, or it may be
called concluding remarks, or summary. However, in most cases it is helpful
for the reader to have a section that (quite brieﬂy) looks back at what has
been said and makes some comments about the main part.
Read the following extracts from conclusions and match them with
the list of functions in the box.
a) In this review, attempts have been made to summarise and assess the
current research trends of transgenic rice dealing exclusively with
agronomically important genes.
b) As always, this investigation has a number of limitations to be
considered in evaluating its ﬁndings.
c) Obviously, business expatriates could beneﬁt from being informed that
problem-focused coping strategies are more effective than symptomfocused ones.
d) Another line of research worth pursuing further is to study the
importance of language for expatriate assignments.
e) Our review of 13 studies of strikes in public transport demonstrates
that the effect of a strike on public transport ridership varies and may
either be temporary or permanent.
f) These results of the Colombia study reported here are consistent with
other similar studies conducted in other countries (Baron & Norman,
g) To be more precise, there was a positive relation between tolerant and
patient problem solving and all four measures of adjustment: general,
interaction, work and subjective well-being.
h) To empirically test this conjecture, we need more cross-national
replication of this research.

comparisons with other studies
summary of main body
limitations of research
suggestions for further research
practical implications and proposals

Writing Stages


2. Compare the following conclusions to two essays on ‘Public transport in a
modern economy’. Complete the table to show the main differences between
a) As has been shown, public transport is likely to play an important role in the future.
Despite possible changes in patterns of work and leisure, it seems possible that mass
transport systems will remain necessary for the efﬁcient movement of people. What is
not clear is how such transport systems should be funded. Various schemes have been
discussed, but the most effective model will probably contain some element of public
funding. Market forces alone are unlikely to provide a satisfactory solution.
b) In such a brief study it is hard to draw deﬁnite conclusions about the future shape of
public transport. The main areas of debate have been outlined, but much more research
is needed before ﬁrm recommendations can be made. It can be seen that this is a
controversial area, with strong protagonists on either side. Whether public transport
ﬂourishes or deteriorates in future is still unclear, though further studies may eventually
suggest an answer.


3. The following may be found in conclusions. Decide on the most suitable
order for them (A–E).
Implications of the ﬁndings
Proposals for further research
Limitations of the research
Reference to how these ﬁndings compare with other studies
Summary of main ﬁndings
4. Below are notes for the main body of an essay. Read the notes and complete
the conclusion, using your own ideas if necessary.
Cultural adaptation among overseas students at a British university.
a) The research programme
purpose: to study how students from different cultural backgrounds adapt to academic
life in the UK


Part 1: The Writing Process

size and method: 250 questionnaires returned (30% Chinese, 25% SE Asian, 20%
Middle Eastern, 25% other)
b) Findings – culture was only one factor in determining successful adaptation.
Other important factors: age/previous experience of living abroad/language proﬁciency
c) Discussion – how accurate was research? How could it have been improved? What
can be done to help students adapt better?


The aim of the study was to explore differing degrees of adjustment to
life at a British university among overseas students from a variety of
cultural backgrounds. 250 valid questionnaires were completed,
representing about a third of the overseas student population, with
signiﬁcant numbers of Chinese, SE Asian and Middle Eastern students.
The results suggest …………



proposals for
further research

cross reference

4.4 Comparison Essay

5. Study the notes for the essay below and write a conclusion in about 100 words.
A comparison of classroom learning with internet-based teaching.
a) Reasons for increasing use of online education:
cheaper if large numbers involved
allows students to study in their own time
students do not have to travel to university
b) Reasons why classroom-based education remains popular:
students can be part of group; receive support and advice; learn from colleagues
students have face-to-face contact with a teacher
is seen as traditional and effective
c) Discussion
can a solitary student in front of a computer enjoy the same learning experience as
a member of a class?
pressure of numbers in universities makes more online education likely
is internet learning really a new method of education? Distance learning has been
popular for many years (e.g. Open University)

Writing Stages


15. Re-reading and Re-writing
When you have ﬁnished the conclusion it may be tempting to hand in your work
immediately. However, it is almost certain that it can be improved by being
revised. With longer assignments, it may be worth asking a classmate to give an

1. After ﬁnishing the ﬁrst draft of an essay you should, if you have time,
wait for a while and then re-read the essay, asking the following
a) How well does this answer the question in the title?
b) Have I forgotten any points that would strengthen the development?
c) Is it clearly structured and well linked together?
cross reference



2. Read this short essay written by a Japanese student to the title ‘Compare
the university system in your country with the British system’. Answer the
questions above by making notes below.
It is said that there are large differences in the teaching methods between British universities
and Japanese ones. Courses in British universities consist mainly of lectures, discussions,
presentations and tutorials and students study speciﬁcally their major subject. On the other
hand, Japanese universities normally have only lectures in the ﬁrst two years and students
have to study a wide range of subjects in addition to their major. The aim of this essay is to
compare and analyse each system.
In British universities, students need a more active attitude in their study than Japanese
students. They need to prepare for presentations and discussions. This is useful for learning
because they take much time for study outside the classroom and as they become familiar with
their subjects they will become more interested in them.
In Japan, students’ attitude is amazingly passive and they study only just before exams.
The other difference between British universities and Japanese ones is, as mentioned above,
British students concentrate on their major subject and gain speciﬁc knowledge about it.
Japanese students, however, gain wider knowledge by studying a few other subjects in addition
to their major. This system gives students apparently much knowledge but they cannot study
their major deeply and their knowledge is wide-ranging but not useful.
In conclusion, British teaching methods give students more chance to know the subject
thoroughly compared to Japanese teaching methods, but Japanese methods are suitable for
students who are eager to gain a wide range of knowledge and like to study on their own. It is
hard to say which is better, it depends on students.




Part 1: The Writing Process

3. A careful re-reading of the essay would suggest the following points.
a) The essay only partly answers the title. It looks at university life from a
student’s position, but does not really deal with the system as a whole.
The last line of the conclusion discusses a question not asked in the
b) To deal with the subject more fully the writer needs to examine topics
such as length of courses, funding of students, and admission
procedures. If there is not space to discuss these in detail they must be
at least mentioned, to show that the writer is aware that they are
central to the subject.
c) The introduction needs to be more general. It goes straight to a
comparison of teaching methods. This could be in the main body.
Otherwise the essay is well organised and quite logical.
cross reference

1.13 Introductions

4. Use the notes below to re-write the introductory paragraph.
university education important in both UK & Japan (over 30% 18-year-olds)
main points for comparison:
a) admissions
b) length of courses: 1st and higher degrees
c) teaching methods
d) assessment
e) ﬁnancial support
essay will examine each point and analyse differences between countries

Writing Stages


In both Britain and Japan, university education is undertaken by a
signiﬁcant number (about 30%) of all young people after leaving school.

cross reference


Discursive Essay

5. Read this extract from the main body of an essay on ‘Education is the most
important factor in national development – Discuss’. Study the notes below
and then re-write the extract.
The need for education is crucial in any ﬁeld. a) It is something that no one can deny. b) The
development in technology has provided us with many devices and machines that facilitate our
lives. Nowadays, factories produce more in less time and that helps the economies of
countries. The different scientiﬁc discoveries have improved the quality of life as well. The
development in the medical ﬁeld is an example; vaccines and antibiotics have saved many
lives. Take Japan, a country with few natural riches, where most of the land is mountains, but it
is now one of the strongest countries economically. c) The natural poverty of Japan has, in fact,
been overcome by education and it has become one of the most important countries in a short
period of time.

a) This sentence repeats the idea in the ﬁrst, but doesn’t add anything
b) Not clear how this section relates to the subject. No clear link is
established between education and technology.
c) The case for linking Japanese development and education is not
established – the claim is too strong. Other factors need to be


Part 1: The Writing Process

16. Proof-Reading
The vital ﬁnal part of the writing process, proof-reading can prevent confusion
and misunderstanding of your work. Although most word-processing programmes
check your spelling, they will not detect other common types of mistakes.

cross reference


Nouns and Adjectives

1. Before handing in any piece of written work for marking, it is important
to check it carefully for errors that may distort your meaning or even
make your work difﬁcult to understand.
The following examples each contain one common type of error.
Underline the error and match it to the list of error types in the box.
i) factual; ii) word ending; iii) punctuation; iv) tense;
v) vocabulary; vi) spelling; vii) singular/plural; viii) style;
ix) missing word; x) unnecessary word
a) The natural poorness of Japan has been overcome …
b) In 1980 in the United States there are 140,000 people who …
c) Actually, hardly any of these has succeeded …
d) … to choose the most suitable area in which they can success.
e) Chinese history reﬂects in real social and cultural changes.

The highest rate of imprisonment was regestred in the USA …

g) Malaria is on the increase in countries such as Africa …
h) I am very interested in German economy …

… the french system is quite different.


You don’t always know which method is best.

2. When proof-reading, it is a good idea to exchange texts with another
student, since you may become over-familiar with your own work.
However, even in exam conditions, when this is not possible, it is vital to
spend a few minutes checking through your work, for this may reveal
careless errors that can be quickly corrected.
Underline and correct the errors in the extracts below (one or two in
a) The graph shows changes in the number of prisoners over ﬁve years (1930–1980).
b) … the way the government prepares his citizens to contribute in the development ...
c) Secondly, education not only teach people many knowledge …
d) However, weather it is the most important factor is the issue …
e) There has been a sharp decrease between 1930 and 1950.

The quality of a society depends in the education level.

g) America had the biggest ﬁgure for crime.

3. Proof-reading a longer text is more difﬁcult.
The following was written by a student who was asked to describe his
background and future plans.

Writing Stages


Underline the errors and then write in suitable corrections.
NB. As the subject is personal, a relatively informal style is
acceptable here.
I come from China, which is a very traditional country. I think before give
my own situation and plan, I have to say something about my country,
because her cultures effect me very much. My country has 5,000 years
history, so in my brain there are a lot of thing which is from it.
When I ﬁrst arrived UK I studied in Cambridge, which is the best
university all over the world. Although I just studied in a language school
in Cambridge, I felt so good. I learned a lot not only from the school but
also from the Cambridge society. That is why I choose Cambridge to learn
my foundation course. The foundation course just for oversea studies to
improve their English.
I would like to study buiness, because when China join in WTO, my
country will need a lot of people who know business very well. So I will
choose business foundation course, computer and mathematics, because
computer is very useful in modern society. In the future course I think the
big problem is vocabulary, so I am planning to remember as many as I
can. I will spend more time on mathematics, because I never learn it
Another problem is to ﬁnish the homework in time. Sometimes I think the
homework is no useful for me, so I just leave it, which is a bad customer.
The last and the big is homesick, which always slow down my progress,
but studying broad is my own choice, I have to try my best.


Elements of Writing
Student Introduction
The Elements of Writing are the various skills that are needed for most
types of academic writing, whether a short report, a longer essay or a
dissertation. Many essays, for example, begin by deﬁning a term in the
title (Unit 4), then make some generalisations about the subject (Unit 7),
before going on to provide examples of the main areas the writer wishes
to examine (Unit 6). Throughout the essay the writer needs to provide
references to sources used (Unit 9) and to employ an appropriate
academic style (Unit 10). Most academic subjects also require discussion of
numbers (Unit 8), and graphs and charts (Unit 12). The model essays in
Part 4 provide examples of how these various elements are employed in
one text (Part 4 Unit 4).
In the case of Units 3 and 5 (Comparisons and Discussion), students should
note that the comparison or discussion might apply to the overall pattern
of the essay or to just one section. It is common, for instance, for longer
essays to have a discussion section before the conclusion. In either case
similar structures can be used.
There is no ﬁxed order for working on the units in Elements of Writing.
They are organised alphabetically for easy access, but most students will
have their own priorities. Business students, for example, might choose to
begin by working on Visual Information (Unit 12).

Cause and Effect



Cause and Effect
1. The relationship between two situations can be shown in a variety of
CAUSE: heavy rain

EFFECT: ﬂooding

Heavy rain causes ﬂooding.
Heavy rain leads to ﬂooding.
Heavy rain results in ﬂooding.
Heavy rain produces ﬂooding.
EFFECT: ﬂooding
cross reference

3.11 Passives

cross reference


CAUSE: heavy rain

Flooding is caused by heavy rain (note use of passive).
Flooding is produced by heavy rain.
Flooding results from heavy rain.
2. It is also possible to use conjunctions that demonstrate cause and effect.




because (of)






owing to

which is why

due to

Because it rained heavily, the ﬂooding was severe. (because + verb)
The ﬂooding occurred because of days of heavy rain. (because + noun)
Owing to the heavy rain the ﬂooding was severe.
It rained heavily for days, therefore the ﬂooding was severe. (used in midsentence)
NB It is more common to use conjunctions to illustrate particular situations.
3. Complete the following sentences with a suitable verb or conjunction.
a) Childhood vaccination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . reduced infant mortality.


the cold winter hospital admissions increased.

d) The summer was extre