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Proletarians of the Proletariat: Women's Citizenship in France

The following analysis of women's citizenship in France examines both alliances and oppositions between the feminist and workers' movements with special emphasis on the interwar period, considered the high point of the so-called French lag. Because it seems difficult to speak of either "the working class" or women generally, only those who identified themselves with specific categories and whose identity and struggles were shaped by that identification will be discussed here. I also will attempt to avoid any generalization concerning a "workers' movement" or a "women's move ment," terms that mask a great ideological and cultural diversity. The workers' movement of the interwar period was strongly divided along both political and trade-unionist lines, and propaganda on women's citizenship was often used to play off one side against the other, frequently with positive consequences for those in the minority (Figs. 1, 2).1 Diversity in feminism is even less recognized, although confusing Madeleine Pelletier with the Duchess de la Rochefoucauld does seem difficult. Any analysis must take into account the myriad nuances of internal divergences related to different conceptions of inferiority, oppression, exclusion, and the ex ploitation of women, as well as divergences in means and programs of action. Three broad lines appear: radical, reformist, and moderate. Equal ly important are the frequent political alignments that form a large part of the spectrum from the far Left to the moderate Right. Finally, methodological choices color the results. Troubling contradic tions between theory and practice and between image and legislative or statistical reality appear, so one hesitates to draw conclusions. In view of the ambivalences, I have tried to work from the perspective of the percep tions and political conduct of those involved. Analysis of the role of the state will provide a particular angle on republican conservatism and the weight of electioneering in the political management of the country. The discussion concerning votes for women revealed a certain democratic fail ure, a social malaise that concerned not only women but society as a whole. Alliance or rivalry? How did feminists and union activists mange their relations during the forty-odd years marked by the debate on women's full citizenship? This singular history highlights a concept of citizenship with multiple definitions formed by a conjuncture of the political and the social. Questions of women and workers equal social questions; advocates of those questions were required to demonstrate the political character of their "social movements" and to reformulate their demands in political