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Racial and Sex Disparities Persist in Modern Cardiac Surgical Outcomes.

R acial and sex disparities in outcomes after coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) are the consequence of both measurable and unmeasurable differences in the delivery of health care to these patients. These disparities cannot be improved until they can be quantified, and in this issue of Annals of Surgery, Enumah and Higgins present a particularly timely contemporary analysis of this problem. There remains a wide chasm in health care outcomes between races and sexes in the United States, which is evident in the clinics of every specialty from primary care to cardiac surgery. Recent ageadjusted data from the Centers for Disease Control show that Hispanic, American Indian or Alaska Native, and non-Hispanic Black patients experience hospitalization for COVID-19 at 4 to 5 times the rate of nonHispanic White patients. However, the welldocumented phenomenon of racial and sex disparities in health care is not a new development, nor is it attributable to the volatile nature of a viral pandemic. The deep roots of these disparities span from socioeconomic and health care access-related factors to variables under direct control of physicians and surgeons such as differences in treatment regimens after coronary angiography and the frequency of subsequent revascularization procedures. The present study is a large, multi-