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Medical ethics and torture.

There is growing evidence of widespread use of torture among political prisoners throughout the world. Medical personnel frequently become involved, sometimes directly, sometimes peripherally as in the examination or treatment of such prisoners. Physicians themselves may become victims of torture when the state attempts to subvert the doctor-patient relation for political purposes. Furthermore, recent studies demonstrate long lasting medical and psychologic effects of torture. For these reasons, physicians have a special opportunity and ethical obligation to resist and oppose torture as well as to support physicians whose lives or professional careers are jeopardized by their refusal to participate in torture. Codes of medical ethics need strengthening to provide clear guidance for the physician who becomes aware of or actively involved in these brutal practices.