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Circulating microparticles. Markers or participants in carotid artery remodelling?

Microparticles initially referred to as ‘cell dust’ were identified more than 40 years ago. Microparticles from different cell types can be identified and consist of a number of subtypes depending on how they are generated. Microparticles called exosomes originate from multivesicular bodies and are released during exocytosis of endocytic bodies, when they fuse with the cell membrane; ectosomes originate from the cell membrane surface. Blood contains a large array of microparticlesderived from different cell types. Platelet-derived microparticles are the most abundant representing 70–90% of all circulating microparticles [1] but microparticlesderived from red cells, granulocytes, monocytes, lymphocytes, mast cells, endothelial cells and vascular smooth muscle cells can also be detected. Increased levels of circulating microparticles have been associated with various physiological and pathological conditions including altered vascular function, vascular remodelling, cardiovascular disease, autoimmunity and cancer. They are detected, quantified and their cellular origin defined using either solid phase capture assays or flow cytometry [2]. These methods rely on antibody detection of specific cellular markers such as CD11a for leucocytes and CD3 for T lymphocytes and frequently annexin V binding of phosphatidylserine. Those originating from apoptotic cells can be identified by their DNA and RNA content [3]. Depending on their composition, microparticles presence in blood can indicate specific cell activation or damage. In addition, microparticles may exert pleiotropic effects on vascular cells. Those from platelets or endothelial cells have procoagulant and proinflammatory activities [4,5] as well as being associated with acute coronary syndromes [6]. Leucocyte-derived microparticles can be markers of cardiovascular diseases and also contribute to pathogenesis. For example, ectosomes released by neutrophils bind to endothelial cells stimulating cytokine release and induction of tissue factor [7]. Microparticles released by T lymphocytes impair endothelial function [8] whereas those derived from mast cells