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Effects of non-consumptive leisure disturbance to wildlife

Human leisure activities are becoming more and more various and widespread,
 which may increase their potential consequences for wildlife in terms of disturbance. This paper summarizes
 existing knowledge on the effect of non-consumptive (i.e. not hunting nor fishing) leisure activities
 on wildlife. The aim is not to provide an exhaustive literature review but through the selection of
 relevant literature to examine the various aspects of the subject. First, we present the different definitions
 of disturbance, list the types of activities most likely to affect wildlife, and the species or taxonomic
 groups generally considered as being the most susceptible. Then, we summarize the various means
 of measuring the effects of disturbance, highlighting the fact that, though generally most obvious, changes
 in animal behaviour are not necessarily the most appropriate index of disturbance. Then we present
 the various scales at which disturbance has been studied, from individual behaviour to population dynamics.
 Finally, we suggest further research priorities, especially the recognized need for more experimental studies and studies of long-term effects of disturbance on individual fitness, hence population
 dynamics, since it is at this scale that appropriate management measures of disturbance have to be taken
 in the future