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Functional cranial joint histology in Anas platyrhynchos: a window to understand avian cranial kinesis

Many of the cranial joints of birds allow significant cranial kinesis, a phenomenon in part responsible for the remarkable diversity of avian feeding adaptations. Whereas some morphological and biomechanical features of cranial kinesis have been studied, little is known about joint structure at the microscopic scale. Consequently, it is still unclear: 1) how the skeletal tissues found at these joints mediate intracranial movements; 2) how these cranial joints vary among different reptile clades; and 3) if specific tissues coincide with particular loading environments. These data are key to understanding the structural basis of kinesis, how secondary articulations form and the origins of the avian feeding apparatus.