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“The Nation’s Hoop is Broken and Scattered”

The bulk of American Indian resistance to Euro-American colonialism and territorial cessions took two primary forms: offensive military action and unsuccessful political maneuvers in the form of petitions to state and federal authorities. Religion was sometimes enlisted to make a case against displacement from tribal homelands or against the pressures to assimilate to an alien way of life, but the appeals were to Christian senses of charity and decency—not apocalypticism. For many of the Indians who surrendered to inevitable defeat and submitted to living on “reservations” in the West, traditional religions provided a means to cope, but they slowly gave way to Christianity. The idea of pan-Indian unity proved too compelling to fade away entirely, and in the 1870s there emerged two would-be messiahs who each predicted not just the restoration of ancient Indian landholdings and power, but the apocalyptic wiping of the white race from all Indian lands, past and present.