{'fraction_non_alphanumeric': 0.03645200486026731, 'fraction_numerical': 0.02875658161198866, 'mean_word_length': 5.534391534391534, 'pattern_counts': {'":': 0, '<': 0, '<?xml version=': 0, '>': 0, 'https://': 0, 'lorem ipsum': 0, 'www.': 0, 'xml': 0}, 'pii_count': 0, 'substrings_counts': 0, 'word_list_counts': {'cursed_substrings.json': 2, 'profanity_word_list.json': 0, 'sexual_word_list.json': 0, 'zh_pornsignals.json': 0}}
Culture, development and female labor force participation: disaggregating different sectors

One of the leading perspectives on the Women-In-Development literature, the modernization perspective, characterizes nations as more or less modern according to the degree of industrialization (Inkeles and Smith, 1974; Moore, 1979). This perspective explains female labor force participation (FLFP) as a consequence of changes in the society’s occupational structure and increased educational opportunities, which often are accompanied by reduced fertility and household responsibilities (Collver and Langlois, 1962; Wilensky, 1968). It is argued that with structural changes in society, there will be an increasing number of jobs in service and white-collar occupations. Therefore, in those societies with increased educational opportunities, lower fertility and lower household responsibilities, a greater demand for female employment as well as a greater supply of better educated women is generated (Heckman, 1980; Standing, 1981). A more detailed study of different patterns of FLFP in Western societies suggests that female employment declines in early stages of economic development due to a progressive reduction of women’s employment in traditional sectors such as agriculture and petty trade (Anker and Hein, 1986). This reduction is not initially compensated for by new opportunities for women to work in service and white-collar occupations. Thus, historical investigation of the Western world indicates the withdrawal of women from ‘productive’ work as early modernization proceeded (Oakley, 1974; Ryan, 1975; Tilly and Scott, 1978). This withdrawal is suggested to be caused by (a) the ‘wealth effect’; improvement of earnings of male breadwinners and the growth of the middle class status where one income is sufficient to support a family, and (b) separation of workplace and home, location of women changes from the home domain in agriculture to the outside of the home in a different location (e.g. as an office or a factory setting). This separation is usually accompanied by rigid fixed workweek hours. These limitations therefore result in the reduction of female employment outside of the home, due to household and child-rearing responsibilities (Boserup, 1970; Oakley, 1974; Ryan, 1975; Tilly and Scott, 1978; Anker and Hein, 1986). Anker and Hein (1986) state: International Review of Sociology—Revue Internationale de Sociologie, Vol. 12, No. 3, 2002