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The explicit teaching of implicature to ESL students and its effect on their performance on the listening section of the Test of English as a Foreign Language

Grice, in "Logic and Conversation," formulated a Cooperative Principle (CP) which he believed underlies language use. Under the CP there are four maxims: quality, quantity, relation and manner. When people violate any of these four maxims, a conversational implicature occurs. For example, if I say "He's a real genius" as a response to the statement "Tom failed all his classes.", I am violating Grice's maxim of quality (be truthful), thereby introducing an implicature: I actually mean that Tom is really dumb (1975). Pfaff stated that speakers have an "extensive reliance on the Gricean cooperative principle, assuming that hearers will be able to interpret their utterances in terms of conversational maxims" (1979). Non native speakers (NNS) of English have difficulty interpreting implicature because of their limited linguistic and cultural knowledge of English and thus are lacking an important part of communicative competence (Bouton 1990). One standard of measuring English competency is the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) administered by the Educational Testing Service. In part one of the TOEFL, prospective undergraduate and graduate international students listen to and answer multiple choice questions about dialogs which frequently use implicature. For example, in one dialog speaker A asks "Do you want any