{'fraction_non_alphanumeric': 0.05489998157449911, 'fraction_numerical': 0.02380094050165429, 'mean_word_length': 4.676322131781183, 'pattern_counts': {'":': 0, '<': 0, '<?xml version=': 0, '>': 0, 'https://': 0, 'lorem ipsum': 0, 'www.': 0, 'xml': 0}, 'pii_count': 0, 'substrings_counts': 0, 'word_list_counts': {'cursed_substrings.json': 1, 'profanity_word_list.json': 0, 'sexual_word_list.json': 0, 'zh_pornsignals.json': 0}}
Network Analysis of the Interaction between Different Religious and Philosophical Movements in Early Judaism

: This paper presents an attempt to systematically describe and interpret the evolution of different religious and political movements in Judaea during the period of the Second Temple using the methods of the theory of social networks. We extensively analyzed the relationship between the main Jewish sects: Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes (Qumranites), and later also Zealots. It is shown that the evolution of the relations between these sects agreed with the theory of social balance and their relations evolved toward more socially balanced structures.


Introduction
There has been a lot of interest in understanding and interpreting the evolution of Judaism during the early stage of Jewish history, in particular during the periods of the First and Second Temple. In this contribution, we consider the relations between different schools of Judaism during the period of the Second Temple. It is argued that the evolution of the relations between different schools of thought that existed in that time can be better captured and understood using the theory of social networks, in particular the theory of signed social graphs, which has proved to be very efficient in analyzing different historical, political, and social interactions (see Section 4.1 for a detailed introduction to the theory of signed networks and its applications).
In this contribution, we consider the following Jewish sects: Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes (Qumranites), and Zealots. Those sects continuously interacted with each other, forming friendly ties, or developing animosity. Identifying the genesis, development, interactions, and relationships of Judaean sects in the Hellenistic era and up to the destruction of the Second Temple poses a major challenge. This is due to the fact that their extant descriptions by their contemporaries are extremely scant and biased and are mostly directed at non-Jews; as for the rabbinic accounts of these Judaean sects, they are recorded about two to five centuries after these sects left the historical scene. Moreover, the Essenes are not mentioned at all either in the New Testament or in the Talmud. The Qumran scrolls (2nd century BCE-1st century CE) shed a whole new light on the emergence of sectarian Judaism. Following most researchers, we identify the Qumran community as a congregation of the Essene trend (see Section 2 for a detailed account on the identification of Qumranites and their relation to Essenes). On the other hand, the esoteric nature of manuscripts from Qumran caves, the use of symbols, pejorative nicknames, ciphers, tendentious judgments, and direct language of hostility do not allow us to clearly restore the picture of the emergence, interactions, and relationships of key Jewish sects in the pothetical term appears to be relevant not only semantically, but also linguistically. In connection with the correspondence of the beginnings in spelling, the following transcriptions are attested to in Hellenistic sources: Ḥаmmoṯ is normally rendered as Ἐμμαοῦς [3] (p. 108); ḥōšen-as ἐσσήν (Antt., III, 163, 217) (moreover, one should bear in mind that the µαρµένη in Josephus' account) in this context can imply the Essenes' belief in predestination, according to which the sectarians, as they thought, found themselves in the community. Cf.: Solinus, De mirabilibus mundi, XXXV, 9, who used the word providentia ("providence") in this connection. The widely spread Essene practice of the prediction of future events (including personal fates), well known to Josephus Flavius (see, e.g., Bellum Judaicum [further -BJ], I, 78-80; II, 111-113, 159; Antt., XIII, 311-313; XVII, 346-348; XV, 371-379; XVII, 345-348; cf. also: Hyppolitus of Rome, Philosophumena, IX, 27), was likely to be based on their belief in predetermination. (In Antt., III, 214-218, Josephus speaks of the Judaean High Priest's breastplate and describes its role in the process of predictions. He transcribes the Hebrew word h .ō šen for a "breastplate" as Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 13 picture of the emergence, interactions, and relationships of key Jewish sects in the Hellenistic era. In this regard, we find it promising to try to use the framework of signed social networks to better understand and visualize the processes in the development of sectarian Judaism that were taking place during those times. The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 we briefly introduce the main Judaean sects and outline their origins and main features. We specifically consider Essenes and show that it can be identified with the sect of Qumranites. Section 3 is devoted to the analysis of the dynamics of interaction between the principal Judaean sects: Sadducees, Pharisees, Essenes, and later also Zealots and Sicarii. Necessary facts about the signed graphs and respective signed networks theory are presented in Section 4. Finally, Section 5 provides an interpretation of the processes described in Section 5 in terms of the signed graphs theory. The paper concludes with a Discussion Section.

A Brief Excursion into the Principal Judaean Sects
Josephus Flavius (37/38-after 100 CE), describing the rise of three principal Judaean sects-the Pharisees (lit. "set apart, separated"), the Sadducees (probably after Zadok, the first High Priest of the First Temple), and Essenes (according to Vita, II, 10-12, he studied these Jewish sects "in practice"), singles out the attitude towards predestination (εἱμαρμένη; lit. "lot", "fate", destiny", sc. Providence) as the main aspect of religious "schools" separation in Judaea in the middle of the 2nd century BCE (Antiquitates Judaicae [further-Antt.], XIII, 171-173). The historian notes that the very essence of the Essenes' doctrine is "that all things are best ascribed to God" (ib., XVIII, 18, see also: ib., XIII, 172). Pliny the Elder (Historia Naturalis, V, 15, 73) asserts that the numbers of the Essenes "are fully recruited by multitudes of strangers that resort to them, driven thither to adopt their usages by the tempests of fortune". The mention of fortuna (this term correlates with the εἱμαρμένη in Josephus' account) in this context can imply the Essenes' belief in predestination, according to which the sectarians, as they thought, found themselves in the community. Cf.: Solinus, De mirabilibus mundi, XXXV, 9, who used the word providentia ("providence") in this connection.) The widely spread Essene practice of the prediction of future events (including personal fates), well known to Josephus Flavius (see, e.g., Bellum Judaicum [further -BJ], I, 78-80; II, 111-113, 159; Antt., XIII, 311-313; XVII, 346-348; XV, 371-379; XVII, 345-348; cf. also: Hyppolitus of Rome, Philosophumena, IX, 27), was likely to be based on their belief in predetermination. (In Antt., III, 214-218, Josephus speaks of the Judaean High Priest's breastplate and describes its role in the process of predictions. He transcribes the Hebrew word ḥōšen for a "breastplate" as ἐσσήν, and correlates the latter term with the Greek λόγιον, "oracle" (ib., III, 163, 217; cf. the Septuagint's correlate term λογεῖον). It is not impossible that Josephus perceived the implicit meaning "prediction" from the designation Ἐσσηνοί.) In the light of these considerations, it seems most natural to correlate the hitherto unclarified etymology of the term Ἐσσαῖοι / Ἐσσηνοί with the Aramaic notion ḥšy /ḥš᾿ [1] (p. 508); cf.: [2] (p. 217), which is interpreted as "what man has to suffer, predestination, fortune" [1] (p. 508). The term ḥšy is attested in the Midrash on the Book of Lamentations, or Eichah Rabbah (89: 14; ib. 20), which, along with the Bereshith Rabbah and the Pesiqta de-Rab Kahana, is the oldest composition of the Midrashic literature. It was written in the so-called Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, which continued, as opposed to the other Western Aramaic languages of the middle stage, one of the written Old Aramaic languages of the western branch. One can try to reconstruct a conjectural noun (m. pl.) of the same root after the model C1aC2C2aC3 (normally designations of persons by their profession, usual activity, etc. are formed after it) as ḥaššayyā᾿ in st. det., respectively ḥš(᾿)(y)yn in st. abs. The etymology of the term Ἐσσαῖοι / Ἐσσηνοί derived from this hypothetical term appears to be relevant not only semantically, but also linguistically. In connection with the correspondence of the beginnings in spelling, the following transcriptions are attested to in Hellenistic sources: Ḥаmmoṯ is normally rendered as Ἐμμαοῦς [3] (p. 108); ḥōšen-as ἐσσήν (Antt., III, 163, 217) (moreover, one should bear in mind that the original pronunciation of the sect's name could begin with Ἑ-, not Ἐ-); as for the Greek σσήν, and correlates the latter term with the Greek λóγιoν, "oracle" (ib., III, 163, 217; cf. the Septuagint's correlate term λoγε Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 13 picture of the emergence, interactions, and relationships of key Jewish sects in the Hellenistic era. In this regard, we find it promising to try to use the framework of signed social networks to better understand and visualize the processes in the development of sectarian Judaism that were taking place during those times. The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 we briefly introduce the main Judaean sects and outline their origins and main features. We specifically consider Essenes and show that it can be identified with the sect of Qumranites. Section 3 is devoted to the analysis of the dynamics of interaction between the principal Judaean sects: Sadducees, Pharisees, Essenes, and later also Zealots and Sicarii. Necessary facts about the signed graphs and respective signed networks theory are presented in Section 4. Finally, Section 5 provides an interpretation of the processes described in Section 5 in terms of the signed graphs theory. The paper concludes with a Discussion Section.

A Brief Excursion into the Principal Judaean Sects
Josephus Flavius (37/38-after 100 CE), describing the rise of three principal Judaean sects-the Pharisees (lit. "set apart, separated"), the Sadducees (probably after Zadok, the first High Priest of the First Temple), and Essenes (according to Vita, II, 10-12, he studied these Jewish sects "in practice"), singles out the attitude towards predestination (εἱμαρμένη; lit. "lot", "fate", destiny", sc. Providence) as the main aspect of religious "schools" separation in Judaea in the middle of the 2nd century BCE (Antiquitates Judaicae [further-Antt.], XIII, 171-173). The historian notes that the very essence of the Essenes' doctrine is "that all things are best ascribed to God" (ib., XVIII, 18, see also: ib., XIII, 172). Pliny the Elder (Historia Naturalis, V, 15, 73) asserts that the numbers of the Essenes "are fully recruited by multitudes of strangers that resort to them, driven thither to adopt their usages by the tempests of fortune". The mention of fortuna (this term correlates with the εἱμαρμένη in Josephus' account) in this context can imply the Essenes' belief in predestination, according to which the sectarians, as they thought, found themselves in the community. Cf.: Solinus, De mirabilibus mundi, XXXV, 9, who used the word providentia ("providence") in this connection.) The widely spread Essene practice of the prediction of future events (including personal fates), well known to Josephus Flavius (see, e.g., Bellum Judaicum [further -BJ], I, 78-80; II, 111-113, 159; Antt., XIII, 311-313; XVII, 346-348; XV, 371-379; XVII, 345-348; cf. also: Hyppolitus of Rome, Philosophumena, IX, 27), was likely to be based on their belief in predetermination. (In Antt., III, 214-218, Josephus speaks of the Judaean High Priest's breastplate and describes its role in the process of predictions. He transcribes the Hebrew word ḥōšen for a "breastplate" as ἐσσήν, and correlates the latter term with the Greek λόγιον, "oracle" (ib., III, 163, 217; cf. the Septuagint's correlate term λογεῖον). It is not impossible that Josephus perceived the implicit meaning "prediction" from the designation Ἐσσηνοί.) In the light of these considerations, it seems most natural to correlate the hitherto unclarified etymology of the term Ἐσσαῖοι / Ἐσσηνοί with the Aramaic notion ḥšy /ḥš᾿ [1] (p. 508); cf.: [2] (p. 217), which is interpreted as "what man has to suffer, predestination, fortune" [1] (p. 508). The term ḥšy is attested in the Midrash on the Book of Lamentations, or Eichah Rabbah (89: 14; ib. 20), which, along with the Bereshith Rabbah and the Pesiqta de-Rab Kahana, is the oldest composition of the Midrashic literature. It was written in the so-called Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, which continued, as opposed to the other Western Aramaic languages of the middle stage, one of the written Old Aramaic languages of the western branch. One can try to reconstruct a conjectural noun (m. pl.) of the same root after the model C1aC2C2aC3 (normally designations of persons by their profession, usual activity, etc. are formed after it) as ḥaššayyā᾿ in st. det., respectively ḥš(᾿)(y)yn in st. abs. The etymology of the term Ἐσσαῖοι / Ἐσσηνοί derived from this hypothetical term appears to be relevant not only semantically, but also linguistically. In connection with the correspondence of the beginnings in spelling, the following transcriptions are attested to in Hellenistic sources: Ḥаmmoṯ is normally rendered as Ἐμμαοῦς [3] (p. 108); ḥōšen-as ἐσσήν (Antt., III, 163, 217) (moreover, one should bear in mind that the original pronunciation of the sect's name could begin with Ἑ-, not Ἐ-); as for the Greek oν). It is not impossible that Josephus perceived the implicit meaning "prediction" from the designation Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 13 picture of the emergence, interactions, and relationships of key Jewish sects in the Hellenistic era. In this regard, we find it promising to try to use the framework of signed social networks to better understand and visualize the processes in the development of sectarian Judaism that were taking place during those times. The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 we briefly introduce the main Judaean sects and outline their origins and main features. We specifically consider Essenes and show that it can be identified with the sect of Qumranites. Section 3 is devoted to the analysis of the dynamics of interaction between the principal Judaean sects: Sadducees, Pharisees, Essenes, and later also Zealots and Sicarii. Necessary facts about the signed graphs and respective signed networks theory are presented in Section 4. Finally, Section 5 provides an interpretation of the processes described in Section 5 in terms of the signed graphs theory. The paper concludes with a Discussion Section.

A Brief Excursion into the Principal Judaean Sects
Josephus Flavius (37/38-after 100 CE), describing the rise of three principal Judaean sects-the Pharisees (lit. "set apart, separated"), the Sadducees (probably after Zadok, the first High Priest of the First Temple), and Essenes (according to Vita, II, 10-12, he studied these Jewish sects "in practice"), singles out the attitude towards predestination (εἱμαρμένη; lit. "lot", "fate", destiny", sc. Providence) as the main aspect of religious "schools" separation in Judaea in the middle of the 2nd century BCE (Antiquitates Judaicae [further-Antt.], XIII, 171-173). The historian notes that the very essence of the Essenes' doctrine is "that all things are best ascribed to God" (ib., XVIII, 18, see also: ib., XIII, 172). Pliny the Elder (Historia Naturalis, V, 15, 73) asserts that the numbers of the Essenes "are fully recruited by multitudes of strangers that resort to them, driven thither to adopt their usages by the tempests of fortune". The mention of fortuna (this term correlates with the εἱμαρμένη in Josephus' account) in this context can imply the Essenes' belief in predestination, according to which the sectarians, as they thought, found themselves in the community. Cf.: Solinus, De mirabilibus mundi, XXXV, 9, who used the word providentia ("providence") in this connection.) The widely spread Essene practice of the prediction of future events (including personal fates), well known to Josephus Flavius (see, e.g., Bellum Judaicum [further -BJ], I, 78-80; II, 111-113, 159; Antt., XIII, 311-313; XVII, 346-348; XV, 371-379; XVII, 345-348; cf. also: Hyppolitus of Rome, Philosophumena, IX, 27), was likely to be based on their belief in predetermination. (In Antt., III, 214-218, Josephus speaks of the Judaean High Priest's breastplate and describes its role in the process of predictions. He transcribes the Hebrew word ḥōšen for a "breastplate" as ἐσσήν, and correlates the latter term with the Greek λόγιον, "oracle" (ib., III, 163, 217; cf. the Septuagint's correlate term λογεῖον). It is not impossible that Josephus perceived the implicit meaning "prediction" from the designation Ἐσσηνοί.) In the light of these considerations, it seems most natural to correlate the hitherto unclarified etymology of the term Ἐσσαῖοι / Ἐσσηνοί with the Aramaic notion ḥšy /ḥš᾿ [1] (p. 508); cf.: [2] (p. 217), which is interpreted as "what man has to suffer, predestination, fortune" [1] (p. 508). The term ḥšy is attested in the Midrash on the Book of Lamentations, or Eichah Rabbah (89:14; ib. 20), which, along with the Bereshith Rabbah and the Pesiqta de-Rab Kahana, is the oldest composition of the Midrashic literature. It was written in the so-called Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, which continued, as opposed to the other Western Aramaic languages of the middle stage, one of the written Old Aramaic languages of the western branch. One can try to reconstruct a conjectural noun (m. pl.) of the same root after the model C1aC2C2aC3 (normally designations of persons by their profession, usual activity, etc. are formed after it) as ḥaššayyā᾿ in st. det., respectively ḥš(᾿)(y)yn in st. abs. The etymology of the term Ἐσσαῖοι / Ἐσσηνοί derived from this hypothetical term appears to be relevant not only semantically, but also linguistically. In connection with the correspondence of the beginnings in spelling, the following transcriptions are attested to in Hellenistic sources: Ḥаmmoṯ is normally rendered as Ἐμμαοῦς [3] (p. 108); ḥōšen-as ἐσσήν (Antt., III, 163, 217) (moreover, one should bear in mind that the original pronunciation of the sect's name could begin with Ἑ-, not Ἐ-); as for the Greek σσηνoί.) In the light of these considerations, it seems most natural to correlate the hitherto unclarified etymology of the term Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW picture of the emergence, interactions, and relationships of k istic era. In this regard, we find it promising to try to use th networks to better understand and visualize the processes in Judaism that were taking place during those times.
The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 we brief sects and outline their origins and main features. We spec show that it can be identified with the sect of Qumranite analysis of the dynamics of interaction between the princi Pharisees, Essenes, and later also Zealots and Sicarii. Nec graphs and respective signed networks theory are presente 5 provides an interpretation of the processes described in S graphs theory. The paper concludes with a Discussion Secti

A Brief Excursion into the Principal Judaean Sects
Josephus Flavius (37/38-after 100 CE), describing the r sects-the Pharisees (lit. "set apart, separated"), the Sadduc first High Priest of the First Temple), and Essenes (accordin these Jewish sects "in practice"), singles out the attit (εἱμαρμένη; lit. "lot", "fate", destiny", sc. Providence) as "schools" separation in Judaea in the middle of the 2nd cen [further-Antt.], XIII, 171-173). The historian notes that the doctrine is "that all things are best ascribed to God" (ib., XV Pliny the Elder (Historia Naturalis, V, 15, 73) asserts that the fully recruited by multitudes of strangers that resort to them usages by the tempests of fortune". The mention of fortuna εἱμαρμένη in Josephus' account) in this context can imply t nation, according to which the sectarians, as they thought, munity. Cf.: Solinus, De mirabilibus mundi, XXXV, 9, who use idence") in this connection.) The widely spread Essene prac events (including personal fates), well known to Josephus F cum [further -BJ], I, 78-80; II, 111-113, 159; Antt., XIII, 311 379; XVII, 345-348; cf. also: Hyppolitus of Rome, Philosophu based on their belief in predetermination. (In Antt., III, 214 Judaean High Priest's breastplate and describes its role in t transcribes the Hebrew word ḥōšen for a "breastplate" as ἐσ term with the Greek λόγιον, "oracle" (ib., III, 163, 217; cf. th λογεῖον). It is not impossible that Josephus perceived the i from the designation Ἐσσηνοί.) In the light of these conside to correlate the hitherto unclarified etymology of the term Aramaic notion ḥšy /ḥš᾿ [1] (p. 508); cf.: [2] (p. 217), which is to suffer, predestination, fortune" [1] (p. 508). The term ḥšy the Book of Lamentations, or Eichah Rabbah (89: 14; ib. 20), w Rabbah and the Pesiqta de-Rab Kahana, is the oldest compositi It was written in the so-called Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, to the other Western Aramaic languages of the middle stag maic languages of the western branch. One can try to recon pl.) of the same root after the model C1aC2C2aC3 (normally de profession, usual activity, etc. are formed after it) as ḥaš ḥš(᾿)(y)yn in st. abs. The etymology of the term Ἐσσαῖοι / Ἐ pothetical term appears to be relevant not only semantica connection with the correspondence of the beginnings in spe tions are attested to in Hellenistic sources: Ḥаmmoṯ is norm (p. 108); ḥōšen-as ἐσσήν (Antt., III, 163, 217) (moreover, on original pronunciation of the sect's name could begin with σσα Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW picture of the emergence, interactions istic era. In this regard, we find it pro networks to better understand and vi Judaism that were taking place durin The paper is organized as follow sects and outline their origins and m show that it can be identified with analysis of the dynamics of interacti Pharisees, Essenes, and later also Ze graphs and respective signed networ 5 provides an interpretation of the pr graphs theory. The paper concludes

A Brief Excursion into the Princip
Josephus Flavius (37/38-after 10 sects-the Pharisees (lit. "set apart, se first High Priest of the First Temple), these Jewish sects "in practice"), (εἱμαρμένη; lit. "lot", "fate", destin "schools" separation in Judaea in the [further-Antt.], XIII, 171-173). The h doctrine is "that all things are best as Pliny the Elder (Historia Naturalis, V, fully recruited by multitudes of stran usages by the tempests of fortune". T εἱμαρμένη in Josephus' account) in t nation, according to which the sectar munity. Cf.: Solinus, De mirabilibus mu idence") in this connection.) The wid events (including personal fates), we cum [further -BJ], I, 78-80; II, 111-11 379; XVII, 345-348; cf. also: Hyppolit based on their belief in predetermin Judaean High Priest's breastplate an transcribes the Hebrew word ḥōšen f term with the Greek λόγιον, "oracle" λογεῖον). It is not impossible that Jo from the designation Ἐσσηνοί.) In th to correlate the hitherto unclarified e Aramaic notion ḥšy /ḥš᾿ [1] (p. 508); cf to suffer, predestination, fortune" [1] the Book of Lamentations, or Eichah R Rabbah and the Pesiqta de-Rab Kahana, It was written in the so-called Jewish to the other Western Aramaic langua maic languages of the western branc pl.) of the same root after the model C profession, usual activity, etc. are f ḥš(᾿)(y)yn in st. abs. The etymology o pothetical term appears to be releva connection with the correspondence o tions are attested to in Hellenistic so (p. 108); ḥōšen-as ἐσσήν (Antt., III, 1 original pronunciation of the sect's n oι / Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW picture of the emergence, interactions, and relati istic era. In this regard, we find it promising to networks to better understand and visualize the Judaism that were taking place during those tim The paper is organized as follows. In Sectio sects and outline their origins and main featur show that it can be identified with the sect of analysis of the dynamics of interaction between Pharisees, Essenes, and later also Zealots and graphs and respective signed networks theory a 5 provides an interpretation of the processes des graphs theory. The paper concludes with a Disc

A Brief Excursion into the Principal Judaean
Josephus Flavius (37/38-after 100 CE), desc sects-the Pharisees (lit. "set apart, separated"), first High Priest of the First Temple), and Essene these Jewish sects "in practice"), singles ou (εἱμαρμένη; lit. "lot", "fate", destiny", sc. Prov "schools" separation in Judaea in the middle of t [further-Antt.], XIII, 171-173). The historian no doctrine is "that all things are best ascribed to G Pliny the Elder (Historia Naturalis, V, 15, 73) ass fully recruited by multitudes of strangers that re usages by the tempests of fortune". The mentio εἱμαρμένη in Josephus' account) in this context nation, according to which the sectarians, as the munity. picture of the emergence, interactions, and relationships of key Jewish sects in the Hellenistic era. In this regard, we find it promising to try to use the framework of signed social networks to better understand and visualize the processes in the development of sectarian Judaism that were taking place during those times. The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 we briefly introduce the main Judaean sects and outline their origins and main features. We specifically consider Essenes and show that it can be identified with the sect of Qumranites. Section 3 is devoted to the analysis of the dynamics of interaction between the principal Judaean sects: Sadducees, Pharisees, Essenes, and later also Zealots and Sicarii. Necessary facts about the signed graphs and respective signed networks theory are presented in Section 4. Finally, Section 5 provides an interpretation of the processes described in Section 5 in terms of the signed graphs theory. The paper concludes with a Discussion Section.

A Brief Excursion into the Principal Judaean Sects
Josephus Flavius (37/38-after 100 CE), describing the rise of three principal Judaean sects-the Pharisees (lit. "set apart, separated"), the Sadducees (probably after Zadok, the first High Priest of the First Temple), and Essenes (according to Vita, II, 10-12, he studied these Jewish sects "in practice"), singles out the attitude towards predestination (εἱμαρμένη; lit. "lot", "fate", destiny", sc. Providence) as the main aspect of religious "schools" separation in Judaea in the middle of the 2nd century BCE (Antiquitates Judaicae [further-Antt.], XIII, 171-173). The historian notes that the very essence of the Essenes' doctrine is "that all things are best ascribed to God" (ib., XVIII, 18, see also: ib., XIII, 172). Pliny the Elder (Historia Naturalis, V, 15, 73) asserts that the numbers of the Essenes "are fully recruited by multitudes of strangers that resort to them, driven thither to adopt their usages by the tempests of fortune". The mention of fortuna (this term correlates with the εἱμαρμένη in Josephus' account) in this context can imply the Essenes' belief in predestination, according to which the sectarians, as they thought, found themselves in the community. Cf.: Solinus, De mirabilibus mundi, XXXV, 9, who used the word providentia ("providence") in this connection.) The widely spread Essene practice of the prediction of future events (including personal fates), well known to Josephus Flavius (see, e.g., Bellum Judaicum [further -BJ], I, 78-80; II, 111-113, 159; Antt., XIII, 311-313; XVII, 346-348; XV, 371-379; XVII, 345-348; cf. also: Hyppolitus of Rome, Philosophumena, IX, 27), was likely to be based on their belief in predetermination. (In Antt., III, 214-218, Josephus speaks of the Judaean High Priest's breastplate and describes its role in the process of predictions. He transcribes the Hebrew word ḥōšen for a "breastplate" as ἐσσήν, and correlates the latter term with the Greek λόγιον, "oracle" (ib., III, 163, 217; cf. the Septuagint's correlate term λογεῖον). It is not impossible that Josephus perceived the implicit meaning "prediction" from the designation Ἐσσηνοί.) In the light of these considerations, it seems most natural to correlate the hitherto unclarified etymology of the term Ἐσσαῖοι / Ἐσσηνοί with the Aramaic notion ḥšy /ḥš᾿ [1] (p. 508); cf.: [2] (p. 217), which is interpreted as "what man has to suffer, predestination, fortune" [1] (p. 508). The term ḥšy is attested in the Midrash on the Book of Lamentations, or Eichah Rabbah (89:14; ib. 20), which, along with the Bereshith Rabbah and the Pesiqta de-Rab Kahana, is the oldest composition of the Midrashic literature. It was written in the so-called Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, which continued, as opposed to the other Western Aramaic languages of the middle stage, one of the written Old Aramaic languages of the western branch. One can try to reconstruct a conjectural noun (m. pl.) of the same root after the model C1aC2C2aC3 (normally designations of persons by their profession, usual activity, etc. are formed after it) as ḥaššayyā᾿ in st. det., respectively ḥš(᾿)(y)yn in st. abs. The etymology of the term Ἐσσαῖοι / Ἐσσηνοί derived from this hypothetical term appears to be relevant not only semantically, but also linguistically. In connection with the correspondence of the beginnings in spelling, the following transcriptions are attested to in Hellenistic sources: Ḥаmmoṯ is normally rendered as Ἐμμαοῦς [3] (p. 108); ḥōšen-as ἐσσήν (Antt., III, 163, 217) (moreover, one should bear in mind that the original pronunciation of the sect's name could begin with Ἑ-, not Ἐ-); as for the Greek [1] (p. 508); cf.: [2] (p. 217), which is interpreted as "what man has to suffer, predestination, fortune" [1] (p. 508). The term h . šy is attested in the Midrash on the Book of Lamentations, or Eichah Rabbah (89:14; ib. 20), which, along with the Bereshith Rabbah and the Pesiqta de-Rab Kahana, is the oldest composition of the Midrashic literature. It was written in the so-called Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, which continued, as opposed to the other Western Aramaic languages of the middle stage, one of the written Old Aramaic languages of the western branch. One can try to reconstruct a conjectural noun (m. pl.) of the same root after the model C 1 aC 2 C 2 aC 3 (normally designations of persons by their profession, usual activity, etc. are formed after it) as h . aššayyā Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW picture of the emergence, interactions istic era. In this regard, we find it pro networks to better understand and vis Judaism that were taking place during The paper is organized as follows sects and outline their origins and m show that it can be identified with t analysis of the dynamics of interactio Pharisees, Essenes, and later also Ze graphs and respective signed network 5 provides an interpretation of the pro graphs theory. The paper concludes w

A Brief Excursion into the Principa
Josephus Flavius (37/38-after 100 sects-the Pharisees (lit. "set apart, se first High Priest of the First Temple), these Jewish sects "in practice"), (εἱμαρμένη; lit. "lot", "fate", destiny "schools" separation in Judaea in the m [further-Antt.], XIII, 171-173). The hi doctrine is "that all things are best asc Pliny the Elder (Historia Naturalis, V, fully recruited by multitudes of strang usages by the tempests of fortune". T εἱμαρμένη in Josephus' account) in th nation, according to which the sectari munity. picture of the emergence, interactions, and relationships of key Jewish sects in the Hellenistic era. In this regard, we find it promising to try to use the framework of signed social networks to better understand and visualize the processes in the development of sectarian Judaism that were taking place during those times. The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 we briefly introduce the main Judaean sects and outline their origins and main features. We specifically consider Essenes and show that it can be identified with the sect of Qumranites. Section 3 is devoted to the analysis of the dynamics of interaction between the principal Judaean sects: Sadducees, Pharisees, Essenes, and later also Zealots and Sicarii. Necessary facts about the signed graphs and respective signed networks theory are presented in Section 4. Finally, Section 5 provides an interpretation of the processes described in Section 5 in terms of the signed graphs theory. The paper concludes with a Discussion Section.

A Brief Excursion into the Principal Judaean Sects
Josephus Flavius (37/38-after 100 CE), describing the rise of three principal Judaean sects-the Pharisees (lit. "set apart, separated"), the Sadducees (probably after Zadok, the first High Priest of the First Temple), and Essenes (according to Vita, II, 10-12, he studied these Jewish sects "in practice"), singles out the attitude towards predestination (εἱμαρμένη; lit. "lot", "fate", destiny", sc. Providence) as the main aspect of religious "schools" separation in Judaea in the middle of the 2nd century BCE (Antiquitates Judaicae [further-Antt.], XIII, 171-173). The historian notes that the very essence of the Essenes' doctrine is "that all things are best ascribed to God" (ib., XVIII, 18, see also: ib., XIII, 172). Pliny the Elder (Historia Naturalis, V, 15, 73) asserts that the numbers of the Essenes "are fully recruited by multitudes of strangers that resort to them, driven thither to adopt their usages by the tempests of fortune". The mention of fortuna (this term correlates with the εἱμαρμένη in Josephus' account) in this context can imply the Essenes' belief in predestination, according to which the sectarians, as they thought, found themselves in the community. Cf.: Solinus, De mirabilibus mundi, XXXV, 9, who used the word providentia ("providence") in this connection.) The widely spread Essene practice of the prediction of future events (including personal fates), well known to Josephus Flavius (see, e.g., Bellum Judaicum [further -BJ], I, 78-80; II, 111-113, 159; Antt., XIII, 311-313; XVII, 346-348; XV, 371-379; XVII, 345-348; cf. also: Hyppolitus of Rome, Philosophumena, IX, 27), was likely to be based on their belief in predetermination. (In Antt., III, 214-218, Josephus speaks of the Judaean High Priest's breastplate and describes its role in the process of predictions. He transcribes the Hebrew word ḥōšen for a "breastplate" as ἐσσήν, and correlates the latter term with the Greek λόγιον, "oracle" (ib., III, 163, 217; cf. the Septuagint's correlate term λογεῖον). It is not impossible that Josephus perceived the implicit meaning "prediction" from the designation Ἐσσηνοί.) In the light of these considerations, it seems most natural to correlate the hitherto unclarified etymology of the term Ἐσσαῖοι / Ἐσσηνοί with the Aramaic notion ḥšy /ḥš᾿ [1] (p. 508); cf.: [2] (p. 217), which is interpreted as "what man has to suffer, predestination, fortune" [1] (p. 508). The term ḥšy is attested in the Midrash on the Book of Lamentations, or Eichah Rabbah (89: 14; ib. 20), which, along with the Bereshith Rabbah and the Pesiqta de-Rab Kahana, is the oldest composition of the Midrashic literature. It was written in the so-called Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, which continued, as opposed to the other Western Aramaic languages of the middle stage, one of the written Old Aramaic languages of the western branch. One can try to reconstruct a conjectural noun (m. pl.) of the same root after the model C1aC2C2aC3 (normally designations of persons by their profession, usual activity, etc. are formed after it) as ḥaššayyā᾿ in st. det., respectively ḥš(᾿)(y)yn in st. abs. The etymology of the term Ἐσσαῖοι / Ἐσσηνοί derived from this hypothetical term appears to be relevant not only semantically, but also linguistically. In connection with the correspondence of the beginnings in spelling, the following transcrip-)(y)yn in st. abs. The etymology of the term Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW picture of the emergence, interactions, and relation istic era. In this regard, we find it promising to try networks to better understand and visualize the pro Judaism that were taking place during those times The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 sects and outline their origins and main features. show that it can be identified with the sect of Qu analysis of the dynamics of interaction between th Pharisees, Essenes, and later also Zealots and Sic graphs and respective signed networks theory are 5 provides an interpretation of the processes descr graphs theory. The paper concludes with a Discuss

A Brief Excursion into the Principal Judaean Se
Josephus Flavius (37/38-after 100 CE), describ sects-the Pharisees (lit. "set apart, separated"), the first High Priest of the First Temple), and Essenes ( these Jewish sects "in practice"), singles out (εἱμαρμένη; lit. "lot", "fate", destiny", sc. Provid "schools" separation in Judaea in the middle of the [further-Antt.], XIII, 171-173). The historian notes doctrine is "that all things are best ascribed to God Pliny the Elder (Historia Naturalis, V, 15, 73) assert fully recruited by multitudes of strangers that resor usages by the tempests of fortune". The mention o εἱμαρμένη in Josephus' account) in this context ca nation, according to which the sectarians, as they t munity. Cf.: Solinus, De mirabilibus mundi, XXXV, 9, idence") in this connection.) The widely spread Ess events (including personal fates), well known to Jo cum [further -BJ], I, 78-80; II, 111-113, 159; Antt., 379; XVII, 345-348; cf. also: Hyppolitus of Rome, P based on their belief in predetermination. (In Ant Judaean High Priest's breastplate and describes its transcribes the Hebrew word ḥōšen for a "breastpla term with the Greek λόγιον, "oracle" (ib., III, 163, λογεῖον). It is not impossible that Josephus percei from the designation Ἐσσηνοί.) In the light of thes to correlate the hitherto unclarified etymology of Aramaic notion ḥšy /ḥš᾿ [1] (p. 508); cf.: [2] (p. 217), to suffer, predestination, fortune" [1] (p. 508). The the Book of Lamentations, or Eichah Rabbah (89:14; Rabbah and the Pesiqta de-Rab Kahana, is the oldest c It was written in the so-called Jewish Palestinian A to the other Western Aramaic languages of the mid maic languages of the western branch. One can try pl.) of the same root after the model C1aC2C2aC3 (nor profession, usual activity, etc. are formed after i ḥš(᾿)(y)yn in st. abs. The etymology of the term Ἐσσ σσα Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW picture of the emergence, int istic era. In this regard, we f networks to better understan Judaism that were taking pla The paper is organized sects and outline their origi show that it can be identifi analysis of the dynamics of Pharisees, Essenes, and late graphs and respective signed 5 provides an interpretation graphs theory. The paper co picture of the emergence, interactions, istic era. In this regard, we find it prom networks to better understand and visu Judaism that were taking place during

A Brief Excursion into the
The paper is organized as follows. sects and outline their origins and ma show that it can be identified with th analysis of the dynamics of interaction Pharisees, Essenes, and later also Zea graphs and respective signed networks 5 provides an interpretation of the proc graphs theory. The paper concludes wi

A Brief Excursion into the Principal
Josephus Flavius (37/38-after 100 sects-the Pharisees (lit. "set apart, sep first High Priest of the First Temple), a these Jewish sects "in practice"), si (εἱμαρμένη; lit. "lot", "fate", destiny" "schools" separation in Judaea in the m [further-Antt.], XIII, 171-173). The his doctrine is "that all things are best ascr Pliny the Elder (Historia Naturalis, V, 1 fully recruited by multitudes of strange usages by the tempests of fortune". Th εἱμαρμένη in Josephus' account) in thi nation, according to which the sectaria munity. Cf.: Solinus, De mirabilibus mun idence") in this connection.) The widely events (including personal fates), well cum [further -BJ], I, 78-80; II, 111-113 379; XVII, 345-348; cf. also: Hyppolitus based on their belief in predeterminat Judaean High Priest's breastplate and transcribes the Hebrew word ḥōšen for term with the Greek λόγιον, "oracle" ( λογεῖον). It is not impossible that Jose from the designation Ἐσσηνοί.) In the to correlate the hitherto unclarified ety Aramaic notion ḥšy /ḥš᾿ [1] (p. 508); cf.: to suffer, predestination, fortune" [1] ( the Book of Lamentations, or Eichah Ra Rabbah and the Pesiqta de-Rab Kahana, is It was written in the so-called Jewish P to the other Western Aramaic language maic languages of the western branch. pl.) of the same root after the model C1a profession, usual activity, etc. are for ḥš(᾿)(y)yn in st. abs. The etymology of t σσηνoί derived from this hypothetical term appears to be relevant not only semantically, but also linguistically. In connection with the correspondence of the beginnings in spelling, the following transcriptions are attested to in Hellenistic sources: H . ammot is normally rendered as 021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 13 picture of the emergence, interactions, and relationships of key Jewish sects in the Hellenistic era. In this regard, we find it promising to try to use the framework of signed social networks to better understand and visualize the processes in the development of sectarian Judaism that were taking place during those times. The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 we briefly introduce the main Judaean sects and outline their origins and main features. We specifically consider Essenes and show that it can be identified with the sect of Qumranites. Section 3 is devoted to the analysis of the dynamics of interaction between the principal Judaean sects: Sadducees, Pharisees, Essenes, and later also Zealots and Sicarii. Necessary facts about the signed graphs and respective signed networks theory are presented in Section 4. Finally, Section 5 provides an interpretation of the processes described in Section 5 in terms of the signed graphs theory. The paper concludes with a Discussion Section.

A Brief Excursion into the Principal Judaean Sects
Josephus Flavius (37/38-after 100 CE), describing the rise of three principal Judaean sects-the Pharisees (lit. "set apart, separated"), the Sadducees (probably after Zadok, the first High Priest of the First Temple), and Essenes (according to Vita, II, 10-12, he studied these Jewish sects "in practice"), singles out the attitude towards predestination (εἱμαρμένη; lit. "lot", "fate", destiny", sc. Providence) as the main aspect of religious "schools" separation in Judaea in the middle of the 2nd century BCE (Antiquitates Judaicae [further-Antt.], XIII, 171-173). The historian notes that the very essence of the Essenes' doctrine is "that all things are best ascribed to God" (ib., XVIII, 18, see also: ib., XIII, 172). Pliny the Elder (Historia Naturalis, V, 15, 73) asserts that the numbers of the Essenes "are fully recruited by multitudes of strangers that resort to them, driven thither to adopt their usages by the tempests of fortune". The mention of fortuna (this term correlates with the εἱμαρμένη in Josephus' account) in this context can imply the Essenes' belief in predestination, according to which the sectarians, as they thought, found themselves in the community. Cf.: Solinus, De mirabilibus mundi, XXXV, 9, who used the word providentia ("providence") in this connection.) The widely spread Essene practice of the prediction of future events (including personal fates), well known to Josephus Flavius (see, e.g., Bellum Judaicum [further -BJ], I, 78-80; II, 111-113, 159; Antt., XIII, 311-313; XVII, 346-348; XV, 371-379; XVII, 345-348; cf. also: Hyppolitus of Rome, Philosophumena, IX, 27), was likely to be based on their belief in predetermination. (In Antt., III, 214-218, Josephus speaks of the Judaean High Priest's breastplate and describes its role in the process of predictions. He transcribes the Hebrew word ḥōšen for a "breastplate" as ἐσσήν, and correlates the latter term with the Greek λόγιον, "oracle" (ib., III, 163, 217; cf. the Septuagint's correlate term λογεῖον). It is not impossible that Josephus perceived the implicit meaning "prediction" from the designation Ἐσσηνοί.) In the light of these considerations, it seems most natural to correlate the hitherto unclarified etymology of the term Ἐσσαῖοι / Ἐσσηνοί with the Aramaic notion ḥšy /ḥš᾿ [1] (p. 508); cf.: [2] (p. 217), which is interpreted as "what man has to suffer, predestination, fortune" [1] (p. 508). The term ḥšy is attested in the Midrash on the Book of Lamentations, or Eichah Rabbah (89: 14; ib. 20), which, along with the Bereshith Rabbah and the Pesiqta de-Rab Kahana, is the oldest composition of the Midrashic literature. It was written in the so-called Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, which continued, as opposed to the other Western Aramaic languages of the middle stage, one of the written Old Ara- picture of the emergence, interactions, and relationships of key Jewish sects in the Hellenistic era. In this regard, we find it promising to try to use the framework of signed social networks to better understand and visualize the processes in the development of sectarian Judaism that were taking place during those times. The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 we briefly introduce the main Judaean sects and outline their origins and main features. We specifically consider Essenes and show that it can be identified with the sect of Qumranites. Section 3 is devoted to the analysis of the dynamics of interaction between the principal Judaean sects: Sadducees, Pharisees, Essenes, and later also Zealots and Sicarii. Necessary facts about the signed graphs and respective signed networks theory are presented in Section 4. Finally, Section 5 provides an interpretation of the processes described in Section 5 in terms of the signed graphs theory. The paper concludes with a Discussion Section.

A Brief Excursion into the Principal Judaean Sects
Josephus Flavius (37/38-after 100 CE), describing the rise of three principal Judaean sects-the Pharisees (lit. "set apart, separated"), the Sadducees (probably after Zadok, the first High Priest of the First Temple), and Essenes (according to Vita, II, 10-12, he studied these Jewish sects "in practice"), singles out the attitude towards predestination (εἱμαρμένη; lit. "lot", "fate", destiny", sc. Providence) as the main aspect of religious "schools" separation in Judaea in the middle of the 2nd century BCE (Antiquitates Judaicae [further-Antt.], XIII, 171-173). The historian notes that the very essence of the Essenes' doctrine is "that all things are best ascribed to God" (ib., XVIII, 18, see also: ib., XIII, 172). Pliny the Elder (Historia Naturalis, V, 15, 73) asserts that the numbers of the Essenes "are fully recruited by multitudes of strangers that resort to them, driven thither to adopt their usages by the tempests of fortune". The mention of fortuna (this term correlates with the εἱμαρμένη in Josephus' account) in this context can imply the Essenes' belief in predestination, according to which the sectarians, as they thought, found themselves in the community. Cf.: Solinus, De mirabilibus mundi, XXXV, 9, who used the word providentia ("providence") in this connection.) The widely spread Essene practice of the prediction of future events (including personal fates), well known to Josephus Flavius (see, e.g., Bellum Judaicum [further -BJ], I, 78-80; II, 111-113, 159; Antt., XIII, 311-313; XVII, 346-348; XV, 371-379; XVII, 345-348; cf. also: Hyppolitus of Rome, Philosophumena, IX, 27), was likely to be based on their belief in predetermination. (In Antt., III, 214-218, Josephus speaks of the Judaean High Priest's breastplate and describes its role in the process of predictions. He transcribes the Hebrew word ḥōšen for a "breastplate" as ἐσσήν, and correlates the latter term with the Greek λόγιον, "oracle" (ib., III, 163, 217; cf. the Septuagint's correlate term λογεῖον). It is not impossible that Josephus perceived the implicit meaning "prediction" from the designation Ἐσσηνοί.) In the light of these considerations, it seems most natural to correlate the hitherto unclarified etymology of the term Ἐσσαῖοι / Ἐσσηνοί with the Aramaic notion ḥšy /ḥš᾿ [1] (p. 508); cf.: [2] (p. 217), which is interpreted as "what man has to suffer, predestination, fortune" [1] (p. 508). The term ḥšy is attested in the Midrash on the Book of Lamentations, or Eichah Rabbah (89: 14; ib. 20), which, along with the Bereshith σσήν (Antt., III, 163, 217) (moreover, one should bear in mind that the original pronunciation of the sect's name could begin with Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW picture of the emergence, interactions, and relationships of key Jewish sects in th istic era. In this regard, we find it promising to try to use the framework of sign networks to better understand and visualize the processes in the development of Judaism that were taking place during those times.
The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 we briefly introduce the main sects and outline their origins and main features. We specifically consider Ess show that it can be identified with the sect of Qumranites. Section 3 is devote analysis of the dynamics of interaction between the principal Judaean sects: Sa Pharisees, Essenes, and later also Zealots and Sicarii. Necessary facts about th graphs and respective signed networks theory are presented in Section 4. Finally 5 provides an interpretation of the processes described in Section 5 in terms of th graphs theory. The paper concludes with a Discussion Section.

A Brief Excursion into the Principal Judaean Sects
Josephus Flavius (37/38-after 100 CE), describing the rise of three principal sects-the Pharisees (lit. "set apart, separated"), the Sadducees (probably after Za first High Priest of the First Temple), and Essenes (according to Vita, II, 10-12, he these Jewish sects "in practice"), singles out the attitude towards prede (εἱμαρμένη; lit. "lot", "fate", destiny", sc. Providence) as the main aspect of "schools" separation in Judaea in the middle of the 2nd century BCE (Antiquitate [further-Antt.], XIII, 171-173). The historian notes that the very essence of the doctrine is "that all things are best ascribed to God" (ib., XVIII, 18, see also: ib., X Pliny the Elder (Historia Naturalis, V, 15, 73) asserts that the numbers of the Esse fully recruited by multitudes of strangers that resort to them, driven thither to ad usages by the tempests of fortune". The mention of fortuna (this term correlates εἱμαρμένη in Josephus' account) in this context can imply the Essenes' belief in nation, according to which the sectarians, as they thought, found themselves in munity. Cf.: Solinus, De mirabilibus mundi, XXXV, 9, who used the word providenti idence") in this connection.) The widely spread Essene practice of the prediction events (including personal fates), well known to Josephus Flavius (see, e.g., Bellu cum [further -BJ], I, 78-80; II, 111-113, 159; Antt., XIII, 311-313; XVII, 346-348; 379; XVII, 345-348; cf. also: Hyppolitus of Rome, Philosophumena, IX, 27), was lik based on their belief in predetermination. (In Antt., III, 214-218, Josephus spea Judaean High Priest's breastplate and describes its role in the process of predic transcribes the Hebrew word ḥōšen for a "breastplate" as ἐσσήν, and correlates term with the Greek λόγιον, "oracle" (ib., III, 163, 217; cf. the Septuagint's corre λογεῖον). It is not impossible that Josephus perceived the implicit meaning "pre from the designation Ἐσσηνοί.) In the light of these considerations, it seems mos to correlate the hitherto unclarified etymology of the term Ἐσσαῖοι / Ἐσσηνοί Aramaic notion ḥšy /ḥš᾿ [1] (p. 508); cf.: [2] (p. 217), which is interpreted as "what to suffer, predestination, fortune" [1] (p. 508). The term ḥšy is attested in the Mi the Book of Lamentations, or Eichah Rabbah (89:14; ib. 20), which, along with the Rabbah and the Pesiqta de-Rab Kahana, is the oldest composition of the Midrashic li It was written in the so-called Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, which continued, as to the other Western Aramaic languages of the middle stage, one of the written maic languages of the western branch. One can try to reconstruct a conjectural pl.) of the same root after the model C1aC2C2aC3 (normally designations of persons profession, usual activity, etc. are formed after it) as ḥaššayyā᾿ in st. det., resp ḥš(᾿)(y)yn in st. abs. The etymology of the term Ἐσσαῖοι / Ἐσσηνοί derived from pothetical term appears to be relevant not only semantically, but also linguist connection with the correspondence of the beginnings in spelling, the following t tions are attested to in Hellenistic sources: Ḥаmmoṯ is normally rendered as Ἐμμ (p. 108); ḥōšen-as ἐσσήν (Antt., III, 163, 217) (moreover, one should bear in mind original pronunciation of the sect's name could begin with Ἑ-, not Ἐ-); as for th -, not Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW picture of the emergence, interact istic era. In this regard, we find it networks to better understand and Judaism that were taking place du The paper is organized as fol sects and outline their origins an show that it can be identified w analysis of the dynamics of inter Pharisees, Essenes, and later also graphs and respective signed netw 5 provides an interpretation of th graphs theory. The paper conclud

A Brief Excursion into the Prin
Josephus Flavius (37/38-afte sects-the Pharisees (lit. "set apar first High Priest of the First Temp these Jewish sects "in practice (εἱμαρμένη; lit. "lot", "fate", de "schools" separation in Judaea in [further-Antt.], XIII, 171-173). Th doctrine is "that all things are bes Pliny the Elder (Historia Naturalis fully recruited by multitudes of st usages by the tempests of fortune εἱμαρμένη in Josephus' account) nation, according to which the se munity. Cf.: Solinus, De mirabilibu idence") in this connection.) The w events (including personal fates), cum [further -BJ], I, 78-80; II, 111 379; XVII, 345-348; cf. also: Hypp based on their belief in predeterm Judaean High Priest's breastplate transcribes the Hebrew word ḥōše term with the Greek λόγιον, "ora λογεῖον). It is not impossible tha from the designation Ἐσσηνοί.) In to correlate the hitherto unclarifi Aramaic notion ḥšy /ḥš᾿ [1] (p. 508 to suffer, predestination, fortune" the Book of Lamentations, or Eich Rabbah and the Pesiqta de-Rab Kaha It was written in the so-called Jew -); as for the Greek "endings" -α Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW picture of the emergence, interactions, and relationships of key Jewish sec istic era. In this regard, we find it promising to try to use the framework networks to better understand and visualize the processes in the developm Judaism that were taking place during those times.
The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 we briefly introduce th sects and outline their origins and main features. We specifically consi show that it can be identified with the sect of Qumranites. Section 3 is analysis of the dynamics of interaction between the principal Judaean s Pharisees, Essenes, and later also Zealots and Sicarii. Necessary facts a graphs and respective signed networks theory are presented in Section 4 5 provides an interpretation of the processes described in Section 5 in ter graphs theory. The paper concludes with a Discussion Section.

A Brief Excursion into the Principal Judaean Sects
Josephus Flavius (37/38-after 100 CE), describing the rise of three p sects-the Pharisees (lit. "set apart, separated"), the Sadducees (probably first High Priest of the First Temple), and Essenes (according to Vita, II, 1 these Jewish sects "in practice"), singles out the attitude towards (εἱμαρμένη; lit. "lot", "fate", destiny", sc. Providence) as the main asp "schools" separation in Judaea in the middle of the 2nd century BCE (Ant [further-Antt.], XIII, 171-173). The historian notes that the very essence doctrine is "that all things are best ascribed to God" (ib., XVIII, 18, see al Pliny the Elder (Historia Naturalis, V, 15, 73) asserts that the numbers of fully recruited by multitudes of strangers that resort to them, driven thith usages by the tempests of fortune". The mention of fortuna (this term co εἱμαρμένη in Josephus' account) in this context can imply the Essenes' b nation, according to which the sectarians, as they thought, found themse munity. Cf.: Solinus, De mirabilibus mundi, XXXV, 9, who used the word pr idence") in this connection.) The widely spread Essene practice of the pre events (including personal fates), well known to  27), was likely to be based on their belief in predetermination. (In Antt., III, 214-218, Josephus speaks of the Judaean High Priest's breastplate and describes its role in the process of predictions. He transcribes the Hebrew word ḥōšen for a "breastplate" as ἐσσήν, and correlates the latter term with the Greek λόγιον, "oracle" (ib., III, 163, 217; cf. the Septuagint's correlate term λογεῖον). It is not impossible that Josephus perceived the implicit meaning "prediction" from the designation Ἐσσηνοί.) In the light of these considerations, it seems most natural to correlate the hitherto unclarified etymology of the term Ἐσσαῖοι / Ἐσσηνοί with the Aramaic notion ḥšy /ḥš᾿ [1] (p. 508); cf.: [2]  idence") in this connection.) The widely spread Essene practice events (including personal fates), well known to Josephus Flav cum [further -BJ], I, 78-80; II, 111-113, 159; Antt., XIII, 311-31 379; XVII, 345-348; cf. also: Hyppolitus of Rome, Philosophume based on their belief in predetermination. (In Antt., III, 214-2 Judaean High Priest's breastplate and describes its role in the transcribes the Hebrew word ḥōšen for a "breastplate" as ἐσσή term with the Greek λόγιον, "oracle" (ib., III, 163, 217; cf. the λογεῖον). It is not impossible that Josephus perceived the imp from the designation Ἐσσηνοί.) In the light of these considerat to correlate the hitherto unclarified etymology of the term Ἐσ Aramaic notion ḥšy /ḥš᾿ [1] (p. 508); cf.: [2] (p. 217), which is int to suffer, predestination, fortune" [1]  idence") in this connection.) The widely spread Esse events (including personal fates), well known to Jos cum [further -BJ], I, 78-80; II, 111-113, 159; Antt., X 379; XVII, 345-348; cf. also: Hyppolitus of Rome, Ph based on their belief in predetermination. (In Antt. Judaean High Priest's breastplate and describes its transcribes the Hebrew word ḥōšen for a "breastplat term with the Greek λόγιον, "oracle" (ib., III, 163, 2 λογεῖον). It is not impossible that Josephus perceiv from the designation Ἐσσηνοί.) In the light of these to correlate the hitherto unclarified etymology of th Aramaic notion ḥšy /ḥš᾿ [1] (p. 508); cf.: [2] (p. 217), w to suffer, predestination, fortune" [1] (p. 508). The t the Book of Lamentations, or Eichah Rabbah (89: 14; ib Rabbah and the Pesiqta de-Rab Kahana, is the oldest co It was written in the so-called Jewish Palestinian Ar to the other Western Aramaic languages of the midd maic languages of the western branch. One can try pl.) of the same root after the model C1aC2C2aC3 Judaean High Priest's breastplate and describes its role in the process of pr transcribes the Hebrew word ḥōšen for a "breastplate" as ἐσσήν, and correl term with the Greek λόγιον, "oracle" (ib., III, 163, 217; cf. the Septuagint's c λογεῖον). It is not impossible that Josephus perceived the implicit meaning from the designation Ἐσσηνοί.) In the light of these considerations, it seems to correlate the hitherto unclarified etymology of the term Ἐσσαῖοι / Ἐσση Aramaic notion ḥšy /ḥš᾿ [1] (p. 508); cf.: [2] (p. 217), which is interpreted as "w to suffer, predestination, fortune" [1] (p. 508). The term ḥšy is attested in th the Book of Lamentations, or Eichah Rabbah (89: 14; ib. 20), which, along with Rabbah and the Pesiqta de-Rab Kahana, is the oldest composition of the Midras It was written in the so-called Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, which continued to the other Western Aramaic languages of the middle stage, one of the wri maic languages of the western branch. One can try to reconstruct a conjectu pl.) of the same root after the model C1aC2C2aC3 (normally designations of per profession, usual activity, etc. are formed after it) as ḥaššayyā᾿ in st. det., ḥš(᾿)(y)yn in st. abs. The etymology of the term Ἐσσαῖοι / Ἐσσηνοί derived pothetical term appears to be relevant not only semantically, but also ling connection with the correspondence of the beginnings in spelling, the follow tions are attested to in Hellenistic sources: Ḥаmmoṯ is normally rendered as (p. 108); ḥōšen-as ἐσσήν (Antt., III, 163, 217) (moreover, one should bear in original pronunciation of the sect's name could begin with Ἑ-, not Ἐ-); as Judaean High Priest's breastplate and describes its role in the process o transcribes the Hebrew word ḥōšen for a "breastplate" as ἐσσήν, and co term with the Greek λόγιον, "oracle" (ib., III, 163, 217; cf. the Septuagin λογεῖον). It is not impossible that Josephus perceived the implicit mean from the designation Ἐσσηνοί.) In the light of these considerations, it se to correlate the hitherto unclarified etymology of the term Ἐσσαῖοι / Ἐ Aramaic notion ḥšy /ḥš᾿ [1] (p. 508); cf.: [2] (p. 217), which is interpreted to suffer, predestination, fortune" [1] (p. 508). The term ḥšy is attested i the Book of Lamentations, or Eichah Rabbah (89: 14; ib. 20), which, along Rabbah and the Pesiqta de-Rab Kahana, is the oldest composition of the Mi It was written in the so-called Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, which conti to the other Western Aramaic languages of the middle stage, one of the maic languages of the western branch. One can try to reconstruct a con pl.) of the same root after the model C1aC2C2aC3 (normally designations o profession, usual activity, etc. are formed after it) as ḥaššayyā᾿ in st. ḥš(᾿)(y)yn in st. abs. The etymology of the term Ἐσσαῖοι / Ἐσσηνοί deri pothetical term appears to be relevant not only semantically, but also connection with the correspondence of the beginnings in spelling, the fol tions are attested to in Hellenistic sources: Ḥаmmoṯ is normally rendere (p. 108); ḥōšen-as ἐσσήν (Antt., III, 163, 217) (moreover, one should bea original pronunciation of the sect's name could begin with Ἑ-, not Ἐ-) )(y)yn is correct, then the "Essenes" are (1) those, who believe in predestination, that is to say, "fatalists", "determinists", or (2) those, who predict fate, the "foretellers". In connection with the latter interpretation, let us point out that in Antt., XIII, 311 (cf. also: BJ, I, 78), Josephus Flavius even mentions a special school of the Essenes, who "learned the art of foretelling things to come" (it flourished at the very end of the 2nd century BCE), cf. also: BJ, II, 159; according to Antt., XV, 373, the Essenes had the "foreknowledge (πρóγνωσιν; 'predetermination') of future events given by God"; cf. ib. 379: " . . . Many of these (Essenes) have, by their excellent virtue, been thought worthy of this knowledge of divine revelations". (On the other possible etymologies of the term "Essenes", see, e.g., [4] (II, 619f).; [5] (I, 262f.); [6] (pp. 61-75). The most widespread etymology is the derivation of the term (εἱμαρμένη; lit. "lot", "fate", destiny", sc. Providence "schools" separation in Judaea in the middle of the 2nd [further-Antt.], XIII, 171-173). The historian notes tha doctrine is "that all things are best ascribed to God" (ib Pliny the Elder (Historia Naturalis, V, 15, 73) asserts tha fully recruited by multitudes of strangers that resort to usages by the tempests of fortune". The mention of for εἱμαρμένη in Josephus' account) in this context can im nation, according to which the sectarians, as they thou munity. Cf.: Solinus, De mirabilibus mundi, XXXV, 9, who idence") in this connection.) The widely spread Essene events (including personal fates), well known to Josep cum [further -BJ], I, 78-80; II, 111-113, 159; Antt., XIII 379; XVII, 345-348; cf. also: Hyppolitus of Rome, Philos based on their belief in predetermination. (In Antt., II Judaean High Priest's breastplate and describes its rol transcribes the Hebrew word ḥōšen for a "breastplate" term with the Greek λόγιον, "oracle" (ib., III, 163, 217; λογεῖον). It is not impossible that Josephus perceived from the designation Ἐσσηνοί.) In the light of these con to correlate the hitherto unclarified etymology of the Aramaic notion ḥšy /ḥš᾿ [1] (p. 508); cf.: [2] (p. 217), whi to suffer, predestination, fortune" [1] (p. 508). The term the Book of Lamentations, or Eichah Rabbah (89: 14; ib. 2 Rabbah and the Pesiqta de-Rab Kahana, is the oldest comp It was written in the so-called Jewish Palestinian Aram to the other Western Aramaic languages of the middle maic languages of the western branch. One can try to pl.) of the same root after the model C1aC2C2aC3 pothetical term appears to be r connection with the corresponde tions are attested to in Hellenist (p. 108); ḥōšen-as ἐσσήν (Antt., original pronunciation of the se oι/ (εἱμαρμένη; lit. "lot", "fate", destiny", sc. P "schools" separation in Judaea in the middle [further-Antt.], XIII, 171-173). The historian doctrine is "that all things are best ascribed t Pliny the Elder (Historia Naturalis, V, 15, 73) fully recruited by multitudes of strangers tha usages by the tempests of fortune". The men εἱμαρμένη in Josephus' account) in this cont nation, according to which the sectarians, as munity. Cf.: Solinus, De mirabilibus mundi, XX idence") in this connection.) The widely spre events (including personal fates), well know cum [further -BJ], I, 78-80; II, 111-113, 159; 379; XVII, 345-348; cf. also: Hyppolitus of Ro based on their belief in predetermination. (I Judaean High Priest's breastplate and descri transcribes the Hebrew word ḥōšen for a "br term with the Greek λόγιον, "oracle" (ib., III λογεῖον). It is not impossible that Josephus from the designation Ἐσσηνοί.) In the light o to correlate the hitherto unclarified etymolo Aramaic notion ḥšy /ḥš᾿ [1] (p. 508); cf.: [2] (p. to suffer, predestination, fortune" [1] (p. 508 the Book of Lamentations, or Eichah Rabbah ( Rabbah and the Pesiqta de-Rab Kahana, is the o It was written in the so-called Jewish Palesti to the other Western Aramaic languages of t maic languages of the western branch. One pl.) of the same root after the model C1aC2C2a profession, usual activity, etc. are formed ḥš(᾿)(y)yn in st. abs. The etymology of the ter pothetical term appears to be relevant not connection with the correspondence of the be tions are attested to in Hellenistic sources: Ḥ (p. 108); ḥōšen-as ἐσσήν (Antt., III, 163, 217) original pronunciation of the sect's name co σσηνoί from the Syriac word h . ăsēn (st. abs.) / h . ăsayya "schools" separation in Judaea in the middle of the 2nd century BCE (Antiquitat [further-Antt.], XIII, 171-173). The historian notes that the very essence of th doctrine is "that all things are best ascribed to God" (ib., XVIII, 18, see also: ib., Pliny the Elder (Historia Naturalis, V, 15, 73) asserts that the numbers of the Ess fully recruited by multitudes of strangers that resort to them, driven thither to a usages by the tempests of fortune". The mention of fortuna (this term correlate εἱμαρμένη in Josephus' account) in this context can imply the Essenes' belief in nation, according to which the sectarians, as they thought, found themselves in munity. Cf.: Solinus, De mirabilibus mundi, XXXV, 9, who used the word providen idence") in this connection.) The widely spread Essene practice of the prediction events (including personal fates), well known to Josephus Flavius (see, e.g., Bel cum [further -BJ], I, 78-80; II, 111-113, 159; Antt., XIII, 311-313; XVII, 346-348 379; XVII, 345-348; cf. also: Hyppolitus of Rome, Philosophumena, IX, 27), was li based on their belief in predetermination. (In Antt., III, 214-218, Josephus spe Judaean High Priest's breastplate and describes its role in the process of predi transcribes the Hebrew word ḥōšen for a "breastplate" as ἐσσήν, and correlates term with the Greek λόγιον, "oracle" (ib., III, 163, 217; cf. the Septuagint's corr λογεῖον). It is not impossible that Josephus perceived the implicit meaning "p from the designation Ἐσσηνοί.) In the light of these considerations, it seems mo to correlate the hitherto unclarified etymology of the term Ἐσσαῖοι / Ἐσσηνο Aramaic notion ḥšy /ḥš᾿ [1] (p. 508); cf.: [2] (p. 217), which is interpreted as "wha to suffer, predestination, fortune" [1] (p. 508). The term ḥšy is attested in the M the Book of Lamentations, or Eichah Rabbah (89: 14; ib. 20), which, along with th Rabbah and the Pesiqta de-Rab Kahana, is the oldest composition of the Midrashic It was written in the so-called Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, which continued, a to the other Western Aramaic languages of the middle stage, one of the written maic languages of the western branch. One can try to reconstruct a conjectural pl.) of the same root after the model C1aC2C2aC3 (normally designations of person profession, usual activity, etc. are formed after it) as ḥaššayyā᾿ in st. det., re ḥš(᾿)(y)yn in st. abs. The etymology of the term Ἐσσαῖοι / Ἐσσηνοί derived from pothetical term appears to be relevant not only semantically, but also linguis connection with the correspondence of the beginnings in spelling, the following tions are attested to in Hellenistic sources: Ḥаmmoṯ is normally rendered as Ἐμ (p. 108); ḥōšen-as ἐσσήν (Antt., III, 163, 217) (moreover, one should bear in min original pronunciation of the sect's name could begin with Ἑ-, not Ἐ-); as for (st. det. (emph.)), "pious", but this etymology encounters a great phonological difficulty: in 1 Macc. 2:42, 7:12-13, 2 Macc. 14:6, its Aramaic equivalent-h . ăsîd ayya these Jewish sects "in practice"), singles out the attitude towards predestination (εἱμαρμένη; lit. "lot", "fate", destiny", sc. Providence) as the main aspect of religious "schools" separation in Judaea in the middle of the 2nd century BCE (Antiquitates Judaicae [further-Antt.], XIII, 171-173). The historian notes that the very essence of the Essenes' doctrine is "that all things are best ascribed to God" (ib., XVIII, 18, see also: ib., XIII, 172). Pliny the Elder (Historia Naturalis, V, 15, 73) asserts that the numbers of the Essenes "are fully recruited by multitudes of strangers that resort to them, driven thither to adopt their usages by the tempests of fortune". The mention of fortuna (this term correlates with the εἱμαρμένη in Josephus' account) in this context can imply the Essenes' belief in predestination, according to which the sectarians, as they thought, found themselves in the community. Cf.: Solinus, De mirabilibus mundi, XXXV, 9, who used the word providentia ("providence") in this connection.) The widely spread Essene practice of the prediction of future events (including personal fates), well known to Josephus Flavius (see, e.g., Bellum Judaicum [further -BJ], I, 78-80; II, 111-113, 159; Antt., XIII, 311-313; XVII, 346-348; XV, 371-379; XVII, 345-348; cf. also: Hyppolitus of Rome, Philosophumena, IX, 27), was likely to be based on their belief in predetermination. (In Antt., III, 214-218, Josephus speaks of the Judaean High Priest's breastplate and describes its role in the process of predictions. He transcribes the Hebrew word ḥōšen for a "breastplate" as ἐσσήν, and correlates the latter term with the Greek λόγιον, "oracle" (ib., III, 163, 217; cf. the Septuagint's correlate term λογεῖον). It is not impossible that Josephus perceived the implicit meaning "prediction" from the designation Ἐσσηνοί.) In the light of these considerations, it seems most natural to correlate the hitherto unclarified etymology of the term Ἐσσαῖοι / Ἐσσηνοί with the Aramaic notion ḥšy /ḥš᾿ [1] (p. 508); cf.: [2] (p. 217), which is interpreted as "what man has to suffer, predestination, fortune" [1] (p. 508). The term ḥšy is attested in the Midrash on the Book of Lamentations, or Eichah Rabbah (89: 14; ib. 20), which, along with the Bereshith Rabbah and the Pesiqta de-Rab Kahana, is the oldest composition of the Midrashic literature. It was written in the so-called Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, which continued, as opposed to the other Western Aramaic languages of the middle stage, one of the written Old Aramaic languages of the western branch. One can try to reconstruct a conjectural noun (m. pl.) of the same root after the model C1aC2C2aC3 (normally designations of persons by their profession, usual activity, etc. are formed after it) as ḥaššayyā᾿ in st. det., respectively ḥš(᾿)(y)yn in st. abs. The etymology of the term Ἐσσαῖοι / Ἐσσηνοί derived from this hypothetical term appears to be relevant not only semantically, but also linguistically. In connection with the correspondence of the beginnings in spelling, the following transcriptions are attested to in Hellenistic sources: Ḥаmmoṯ is normally rendered as Ἐμμαοῦς [3] (p. 108); ḥōšen-as ἐσσήν (Antt., III, 163, 217) (moreover, one should bear in mind that the original pronunciation of the sect's name could begin with Ἑ-, not Ἐ-); as for the Greek (Heb. h . ăsîd îm), "pious", is transliterated as these Jewish sects "in practice"), singles out the (εἱμαρμένη; lit. "lot", "fate", destiny", sc. Providenc "schools" separation in Judaea in the middle of the 2n [further-Antt.], XIII, 171-173). The historian notes th doctrine is "that all things are best ascribed to God" (i Pliny the Elder (Historia Naturalis, V, 15, 73) asserts th fully recruited by multitudes of strangers that resort to usages by the tempests of fortune". The mention of fo εἱμαρμένη in Josephus' account) in this context can im nation, according to which the sectarians, as they thou munity. Cf.: Solinus, De mirabilibus mundi, XXXV, 9, wh idence") in this connection.) The widely spread Essene events (including personal fates), well known to Josep cum [further -BJ], I, 78-80; II, 111-113, 159; Antt., XII 379; XVII, 345-348; cf. also: Hyppolitus of Rome, Philo based on their belief in predetermination. (In Antt., I Judaean High Priest's breastplate and describes its ro transcribes the Hebrew word ḥōšen for a "breastplate" term with the Greek λόγιον, "oracle" (ib., III, 163, 217 λογεῖον). It is not impossible that Josephus perceived from the designation Ἐσσηνοί.) In the light of these co to correlate the hitherto unclarified etymology of the Aramaic notion ḥšy /ḥš᾿ [1] (p. 508); cf.: [2] (p. 217), wh to suffer, predestination, fortune" [1] (p. 508). The ter the Book of Lamentations, or Eichah Rabbah (89: 14; ib. Rabbah and the Pesiqta de-Rab Kahana, is the oldest com It was written in the so-called Jewish Palestinian Aram to the other Western Aramaic languages of the middle maic languages of the western branch. One can try to pl.) of the same root after the model C1aC2C2aC3  [7]), the distinctive features of the Essenes were the following: common property, collective labor and meals, preferably observance of celibacy; it is most likely that the Essenes used the solar calendar. According to Pliny the Elder (Historia Naturalis, V, 15, 73; cf. also: Solinus, De mirabilibus mundi, XXXV, 9, 12; see further, e.g., [8] (pp. 133-137); [9] (I, pp. 480-481); [7] (3, n. 9); [4] (II, p. 620); cf.: [10] (pp. 6-8)), their central settlement (Dio Chrysostom called it "a whole happy city by the dead water in the interior of Palestine"; see: Synesius of Cyrene, Dio, 3, 2) was apparently located northwest of the Dead Sea coast. It was in this region-in the Khirbet Qumran area near the northwest coast of the Dead Sea-that the manuscripts were discovered in the middle of the 20th century, belonging to the Judaean community (official publication of the full corpus of the Dead Sea scrolls was completed relatively recently; see: [11]), which the vast majority of researchers identify with the Essenes (see, e.g., [12,13]); as for the Qumran settlement itself, these researchers consider it to have been the main center of the Essenes. The fact is that the doctrine of absolute predestination played a key role in the religious outlook of the Qumran community (see, e.g., 1QH a IX (= 4Q432 2), 7-34; 1QS IX, 24-25; 1QpHab VII, 13-14, etc.; cf., e.g., 1QH a IX, 23-24: "Everything is engraved before You . . . for all the periods of eternity, for the numbered seasons of eternal years in all their appointed times". See further, e.g., [14] and [15] (pp. 184-189)), and this aspect is considered to be one of the most important arguments in favor of the Qumranites' identification with the Essenes (cf., e.g., [16] (pp. 71-74)). A Qumran Hebrew etymological and semantic equivalent of the term ε Philosophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW picture of the emergence, interactions, and relat istic era. In this regard, we find it promising to networks to better understand and visualize the Judaism that were taking place during those tim The paper is organized as follows. In Sectio sects and outline their origins and main featur show that it can be identified with the sect of analysis of the dynamics of interaction betwee Pharisees, Essenes, and later also Zealots and graphs and respective signed networks theory a 5 provides an interpretation of the processes de graphs theory. The paper concludes with a Disc

A Brief Excursion into the Principal Judaean
Josephus Flavius (37/38-after 100 CE), des sects-the Pharisees (lit. "set apart, separated"), first High Priest of the First Temple), and Essen these Jewish sects "in practice"), singles o (εἱμαρμένη; lit. "lot", "fate", destiny", sc. Pro "schools" separation in Judaea in the middle of [further-Antt.], XIII, 171-173). The historian no doctrine is "that all things are best ascribed to G Pliny the Elder (Historia Naturalis, V, 15, 73) ass fully recruited by multitudes of strangers that re usages by the tempests of fortune". The mentio εἱμαρμένη in Josephus' account) in this context nation, according to which the sectarians, as th munity. Cf.: Solinus, De mirabilibus mundi, XXXV idence") in this connection.) The widely spread events (including personal fates), well known t cum [further -BJ], I, 78-80; II, 111-113, 159; An 379; XVII, 345-348; cf. also: Hyppolitus of Rom based on their belief in predetermination. (In A Judaean High Priest's breastplate and describe transcribes the Hebrew word ḥōšen for a "breas term with the Greek λόγιον, "oracle" (ib., III, 1 λογεῖον). It is not impossible that Josephus per from the designation Ἐσσηνοί.) In the light of th to correlate the hitherto unclarified etymology Aramaic notion ḥšy /ḥš᾿ [1] (p. 508); cf.: [2] (p. 21 µαρµένη, used by Josephus Flavius, is the notion gōrāl, "lot", "share", sc. destiny, which is frequently attested to in the scrolls (cf. also the Hebrew notions h .ē leq in the meaning "share", "portion", "lot" (e.g., CD-B XX, 10, 13) and tȇ 021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 13 "endings" -αῖοι/ -ηνοί, they can represent transcriptions of the Aramaic endings -ayyā᾿/-în (pl. m. in st. det. and pl. m. in st. abs., respectively) plus the Greek ending m. pl. -οί proper. So, if the suggested derivation of the Ἐσσαῖοι/Ἐσσηνοί's etymology from the reconstructed Aramaic term ḥšy(y)᾿/ḥš(᾿)(y)yn is correct, then the "Essenes" are 1) those, who believe in predestination, that is to say, "fatalists", "determinists", or 2) those, who predict fate, the "foretellers". In connection with the latter interpretation, let us point out that in Antt., XIII, 311 (cf. also: BJ, I, 78), Josephus Flavius even mentions a special school of the Essenes, who "learned the art of foretelling things to come" (it flourished at the very end of the 2nd century BCE), cf. also: BJ, II, 159; according to Antt., XV, 373, the Essenes had the "foreknowledge (πρόγνωσιν; 'predetermination') of future events given by God"; cf. ib. 379: "…Many of these (Essenes) have, by their excellent virtue, been thought worthy of this knowledge of divine revelations". (On the other possible etymologies of the term "Essenes", see, e.g., [4] (II, 619f).; [5] [7]), the distinctive features of the Essenes were the following: common property, collective labor and meals, preferably observance of celibacy; it is most likely that the Essenes used the solar calendar. According to Pliny the Elder (Historia Naturalis, V, 15, 73; cf. also: Solinus, De mirabilibus mundi, XXXV, 9, 12; see further, e.g., [8] (pp. 133-137); [9] (I, pp. 480-481); [7] (3, n. 9); [4] (II, p. 620); cf.: [10] (pp. 6-8)), their central settlement (Dio Chrysostom called it "a whole happy city by the dead water in the interior of Palestine"; see: Synesius of Cyrene, Dio, 3, 2) was apparently located northwest of the Dead Sea coast. It was in this region-in the Khirbet Qumran area near the northwest coast of the Dead Sea-that the manuscripts were discovered in the middle of the 20th century, belonging to the Judaean community (official publication of the full corpus of the Dead Sea scrolls was completed relatively recently; see: [11]), which the vast majority of researchers identify with the Essenes (see, e.g., [12,13]); as for the Qumran settlement itself, these researchers consider it to have been the main center of the Essenes. The fact is that the doctrine of absolute predestination played a key role in the religious outlook of the Qumran community (see, e.g., 1QH a IX (= 4Q432 2), 7-34; 1QS IX, 24-25; 1QpHab VII, 13-14, etc.; cf., e.g., 1QH a IX, 23-24: "Everything is engraved before You… for all the periods of eternity, for the numbered seasons of eternal years in all their appointed times". See further, e.g., [14] and [15] (pp. 184-189)), and this aspect is considered to be one of the most important arguments in favor of the Qumranites' identification with the Essenes (cf., e.g., [16] (pp. 71-74)). A Qumran Hebrew etymological and semantic equivalent of the term εἱμαρμένη, used by Josephus Flavius, is the notion gōrāl, "lot", "share", sc. destiny, which is frequently attested to in the scrolls (cf. also the Hebrew notions ḥēleq in the meaning "share", "portion", "lot" (e.g., CD-B XX, 10, 13) and tĕʽuḏāh, "destiny", "predestination" (e.g., 1QH a IX, 19)). Judging by the sectarian manuscripts, mainly the so-called Pesharim (i.e., Commentaries on the Latter Prophets and Psalms), the members of the Qumran community, like the Essenes (in this connection cf. especially Josephus' BJ, II, 159), predicted the fates of the whole world, as well as of certain individuals.
According to the Rule of the Qumran community (1QS; 4QS a-j , 5QS (= 5Q11)) and a number of documents related to it (see, e.g., [17]), the Qumranites were characterized by the same rare socio-economic characteristics as the Essenes in the descriptions of ancient authors-above all, common ownership, collective work, and way of life; the Qumran sectarians observed celibacy (perhaps, with rare exceptions in some historical periods (cf., e.g., [18] and [19] (p. 111)) and kept the solar calendar (of 364 days), cf. [20]. Thus, using Ockham's razor-not sunt multiplicanda entia praeter necessitatem-it is hard not to agree with the Essene identification of the Qumran community. udāh, "destiny", "predestination" (e.g., 1QH a IX, 19)). Judging by the sectarian manuscripts, mainly the so-called Pesharim (i.e., Commentaries on the Latter Prophets and Psalms), the members of the Qumran community, like the Essenes (in this connection cf. especially Josephus' BJ, II, 159), predicted the fates of the whole world, as well as of certain individuals.
According to the Rule of the Qumran community (1QS; 4QS a-j , 5QS (= 5Q11)) and a number of documents related to it (see, e.g., [17]), the Qumranites were characterized by the same rare socio-economic characteristics as the Essenes in the descriptions of ancient authors-above all, common ownership, collective work, and way of life; the Qumran sectarians observed celibacy (perhaps, with rare exceptions in some historical periods (cf., e.g., [18] and [19] (p. 111)) and kept the solar calendar (of 364 days), cf. [20]. Thus, using Ockham's razor-not sunt multiplicanda entia praeter necessitatem-it is hard not to agree with the Essene identification of the Qumran community.
Ideology in Judaea changed dramatically with the arrival of the Romans in 63 BCE. According to Josephus Flavius (BJ, I, 204-212; II, 56; Antt., XIV, 158-179; XVII, 271-272; see further: BJ, I, 304-316; Antt., XIV, 415-433), a powerful armed rebel movement emerged in Galilee in the early 40s of the 1st century BCE. At a certain stage, Yehuda from Gamala took over the leadership of the uprising (cf.: BJ, II, 56; Antt., XVII, 271-272). According to Josephus' account (BJ, II, 56, 118, 433; Antt., XVIII, 4-10, 23-25, XX, 102, cf. also: Acts 5:37; Lk. 13:1-3), when Judaea was incorporated into the Syrian province in 6 CE, i.e., at the beginning of direct Roman rule, Yehuda, together with the Pharisee Zadok, founded the "fourth philosophical school" (after the Pharisees, the Sadducees, and the Essenes), and thus consolidated the movement of the Zealots, who "in all other things are quite adjacent to the teaching of the Pharisees, but they are distinguished by an unconstrained love of Philosophies 2021, 6, 2 5 of 13 freedom: They consider God to be their only Ruler and Lord". In 66 CE, Yehuda's youngest son, Menachem, proved to be one of the most powerful leaders of the rebellion against Rome in its early days and would take over power in Jerusalem for a short time (see: BJ, II, 433-449; Vita, I, 21, 46); as for Menachem's relative, Eleazar ben Yair, he led the patriot detachment in Masada, the last stronghold of the rebellious Jews, which fell in 73/74 CE.
The appearance of the Romans in Judaea in 63 BCE probably radically changed the Qumranites' ideology as well. It seems that it was during this period that the Qumran so-called War Scroll (1QM, 4QM a-h , 4Q285(?); see, e.g., [31]) and related documents were created, the central idea behind which was the liberation war with the Romans ("the kittim" in the scrolls) to the victorious end. (In the Qumran Pesharim, the appearance of the Romans in Judaea was most likely still expected; see, e.g., our works listed in References.) Starting from 6 CE, these moods seem to be only getting stronger. Let us also mention ad hoc that judging from BJ, II, 111-113 and Antt., XV, 371-379, XVII, 346-348, the Essenes lived in Jerusalem under King Herod (37-4 BCE), whose respect and patronage they enjoyed, and probably under his son, ethnarch Herod Archelaus (4 BCE-6 CE). It seems that the emergence of the Essenes in Jerusalem in this period correlates with the fact that the Qumran settlement was destroyed by an earthquake in 31 BCE (cf.: BJ, I, 370; Antt., XV, 121) and was left by its inhabitants for a time (the end of archeological period Ib). But Qumran again settles down at around 6 CE (the beginning of archeological period II). It cannot be ruled out that the restoration of the Qumran settlement was somehow connected with the introduction of direct Roman rule in Judaea.
A We see an implicit indication to the accession of a patriotic grouping of the Essene-Qumran trend to the Zealots and the Sicarii around 55 CE in BJ, II, 254-265. This grouping is referred to by Josephus Flavius as στ picture of the emergence, interactions, and relationships of key Jewish sec istic era. In this regard, we find it promising to try to use the framework networks to better understand and visualize the processes in the developm Judaism that were taking place during those times.
The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 we briefly introduce th sects and outline their origins and main features. We specifically consid show that it can be identified with the sect of Qumranites. Section 3 is analysis of the dynamics of interaction between the principal Judaean se Pharisees, Essenes, and later also Zealots and Sicarii. Necessary facts a graphs and respective signed networks theory are presented in Section 4. 5 provides an interpretation of the processes described in Section 5 in term graphs theory. The paper concludes with a Discussion Section.

A Brief Excursion into the Principal Judaean Sects
Josephus Flavius (37/38-after 100 CE), describing the rise of three pr sects-the Pharisees (lit. "set apart, separated"), the Sadducees (probably first High Priest of the First Temple), and Essenes (according to Vita, II, 10 these Jewish sects "in practice"), singles out the attitude towards (εἱμαρμένη; lit. "lot", "fate", destiny", sc. Providence) as the main asp "schools" separation in Judaea in the middle of the 2nd century BCE (Ant [further-Antt.], XIII, 171-173). The historian notes that the very essence doctrine is "that all things are best ascribed to God" (ib., XVIII, 18, see als Pliny the Elder (Historia Naturalis, V, 15, 73) asserts that the numbers of t fully recruited by multitudes of strangers that resort to them, driven thith usages by the tempests of fortune". The mention of fortuna (this term cor εἱμαρμένη in Josephus' account) in this context can imply the Essenes' be nation, according to which the sectarians, as they thought, found themse munity. Cf.: Solinus, De mirabilibus mundi, XXXV, 9, who used the word pro idence") in this connection.) The widely spread Essene practice of the pred events (including personal fates), well known to Josephus Flavius (see, e. Judaean High Priest's breastplate and describes its role in the process of transcribes the Hebrew word ḥōšen for a "breastplate" as ἐσσήν, and cor term with the Greek λόγιον, "oracle" (ib., III, 163, 217; cf. the Septuagint' λογεῖον). It is not impossible that Josephus perceived the implicit meani from the designation Ἐσσηνοί.) In the light of these considerations, it seem to correlate the hitherto unclarified etymology of the term Ἐσσαῖοι / Ἐσ Aramaic notion ḥšy /ḥš᾿ [1] (p. 508); cf.: [2] (p. 217), which is interpreted as to suffer, predestination, fortune" [1] (p. 508). The term ḥšy is attested in the Book of Lamentations, or Eichah Rabbah (89:14; ib. 20), which, along w Rabbah and the Pesiqta de-Rab Kahana, is the oldest composition of the Midr It was written in the so-called Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, which continu to the other Western Aramaic languages of the middle stage, one of the w maic languages of the western branch. One can try to reconstruct a conje pl.) of the same root after the model C1aC2C2aC3 (normally designations of profession, usual activity, etc. are formed after it) as ḥaššayyā᾿ in st. d ḥš(᾿)(y)yn in st. abs. The etymology of the term Ἐσσαῖοι / Ἐσσηνοί derive pothetical term appears to be relevant not only semantically, but also l connection with the correspondence of the beginnings in spelling, the follo tions are attested to in Hellenistic sources: Ḥаmmoṯ is normally rendered (p. 108); ḥōšen-as ἐσσήν (Antt., III, 163, 217) (moreover, one should bear original pronunciation of the sect's name could begin with Ἑ-, not Ἐ-); a ϕoς, "body of men in close array", "battle array", i.e., the term equivalent to the Hebrew osophies 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 13 unconstrained love of freedom: They consider God to be their only Ruler and Lord". In 66 CE, Yehuda's youngest son, Menachem, proved to be one of the most powerful leaders of the rebellion against Rome in its early days and would take over power in Jerusalem for a short time (see: BJ, II, 433-449; Vita, I, 21, 46); as for Menachem's relative, Eleazar ben Yair, he led the patriot detachment in Masada, the last stronghold of the rebellious Jews, which fell in 73/74 CE. The appearance of the Romans in Judaea in 63 BCE probably radically changed the Qumranites' ideology as well. It seems that it was during this period that the Qumran socalled War Scroll (1QM, 4QM a-h , 4Q285(?); see, e.g., [31]) and related documents were created, the central idea behind which was the liberation war with the Romans ("the kittim" in the scrolls) to the victorious end. (In the Qumran Pesharim, the appearance of the Romans in Judaea was most likely still expected; see, e.g., our works listed in References.) Starting from 6 CE, these moods seem to be only getting stronger. Let us also mention ad hoc that judging from BJ, II, 111-113 and Antt., XV, 371-379, XVII, 346-348, the Essenes lived in Jerusalem under King Herod (37-4 BCE), whose respect and patronage they enjoyed, and probably under his son, ethnarch Herod Archelaus (4 BCE-6 CE). It seems that the emergence of the Essenes in Jerusalem in this period correlates with the fact that the Qumran settlement was destroyed by an earthquake in 31 BCE (cf.: BJ, I, 370; Antt., XV, 121) and was left by its inhabitants for a time (the end of archeological period Ib). But Qumran again settles down at around 6 CE (the beginning of archeological period II). It cannot be ruled out that the restoration of the Qumran settlement was somehow connected with the introduction of direct Roman rule in Judaea.
A number of sources suggest that the Qumranites, like some other communities of the Essene trend, took part in the patriotic movement for the liberation of Judaea from This grouping is referred to by Josephus Flavius as στῖφος, "body of men in close array", "battle array", i.e., the term equivalent to the Hebrew ‫מערכה‬ (maʽărāḵāh; "array", "row", "battle-line" (perhaps this term means a "row of worshippers" in 1QS X, 14; see further: [32] (pp. 413-415)), which is repeatedly used in the Qumran War Scroll to refer to the combat orders of the "sons of the Light" fighting the "kittim"-the Romans. The fact that Josephus Flavius does not explicitly refer to the sectarian affiliation of this group can be explained by his explicit sympathy for the Essenes and his desire to disguise their direct mass participation in the anti-Roman movement.
Indirect evidence in favor of the fact that at least part of the Essenes participated in the uprising against Rome in 66-73/74 CE can be found in the text of BJ, II, 152, where Josephus Flavius spoke about the terrible tortures to which the Romans subjected the sectarians. In the same work, the Jewish historian says that the commander of the Tamna district was the Essene Johanan during the Jewish War (II, 566-568; III, [9][10][11][12]. Judging from the archeological findings, the Qumran settlement was attacked by the Roman troops (probably by the tenth legion from Caesarea-Legio X Fretensis) and completely destroyed (the end of the Qumran archeological period II). This likely happened in the summer of 68 CE as most researchers believe, following R. de Vaux ( [8]; cf.: [33], also: Josephus Flavius, BJ, IV, 449-450, 477, 486), but perhaps later, in 73 CE (see, e.g., [34] (19)(20)(21)(22)(23); [35] (pp. 121-165)). The numismatic evidence of Qumran closely resembles that of Masada. Some Qumranites apparently managed to escape to the fortress of Masada, the last stronghold of the rebellious Jews controlled by the Sicarii. This seems to be evidenced by the discovery of fragments of the Qumran text Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice in Masada (Mas-ShirShabb) during excavations of this fortress (see, e.g., [36] (pp. 120-132)).
According to the Rule of the Qumran community (1QS; 4QS a-j , 5QS (= 5Q11)) an number of documents related to it (see, e.g., [17]), the Qumranites were characterized the same rare socio-economic characteristics as the Essenes in the descriptions of anc authors-above all, common ownership, collective work, and way of life; the Qum sectarians observed celibacy (perhaps, with rare exceptions in some historical periods e.g., [18] and [19] (p. 111)) and kept the solar calendar (of 364 days), cf. [20]. Thus, u Ockham's razor-not sunt multiplicanda entia praeter necessitatem-it is hard not to ag with the Essene identification of the Qumran community.
ărākāh; "array", "row", "battle-line" (perhaps this term means a "row of worshippers" in 1QS X, 14; see further: [32] (pp. 413-415)), which is repeatedly used in the Qumran War Scroll to refer to the combat orders of the "sons of the Light" fighting the "kittim"-the Romans. The fact that Josephus Flavius does not explicitly refer to the sectarian affiliation of this group can be explained by his explicit sympathy for the Essenes and his desire to disguise their direct mass participation in the anti-Roman movement.
Indirect evidence in favor of the fact that at least part of the Essenes participated in the uprising against Rome in 66-73/74 CE can be found in the text of BJ, II, 152, where Josephus Flavius spoke about the terrible tortures to which the Romans subjected the sectarians. In the same work, the Jewish historian says that the commander of the Tamna district was the Essene Johanan during the Jewish War (II, 566-568; III, [9][10][11][12]. Judging from the archeological findings, the Qumran settlement was attacked by the Roman troops (probably by the tenth legion from Caesarea-Legio X Fretensis) and completely destroyed (the end of the Qumran archeological period II). This likely happened in the summer of 68 CE as most researchers believe, following R. de Vaux ( [8]; cf.: [33], also: Josephus Flavius, BJ, IV, 449-450, 477, 486), but perhaps later, in 73 CE (see, e.g., [34] (19)(20)(21)(22)(23); [35] (pp. 121-165)). The numismatic evidence of Qumran closely resembles that of Masada. Some Qumranites apparently managed to escape to the fortress of Masada, the last stronghold of the rebellious Jews controlled by the Sicarii. This seems to be evidenced by the discovery of fragments of the Qumran text Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice in Masada (MasShirShabb) during excavations of this fortress (see, e.g., [36] (pp. 120-132)).
Philosophies 2021, 6, 2 6 of 13 Thus, it seems reasonable to assume that the military and political situation that developed in Judaea since the appearance of the Romans in Jerusalem in 63 BCE and especially after the introduction of direct Roman rule in Judaea in 6 CE brought the communities of the Essene-Qumran trend closer to the Pharisees, especially to their radical anti-Roman groupings. Eventually, all three major Jewish sects-the Pharisees (including the Zealots), the Essenes, and the Sadducees-perished in the fire of the First Jewish War with Rome in 66-73/74 CE.

The History of Social Balance Analysis for Signed Social Networks
When people (groups, countries) interact, they form a structure called a social network. Typically, a network is represented as a set of vertices corresponding to different actors and a set of edges, i.e., the links connecting these actors. The theory of graphs offers a natural framework for studying such systems. During most of the 20th century, such social graphs were studied by both sociologists and mathematicians, but the field of their application did not go beyond rather specific sociological problems. However, the advent of modern age social networks such as Facebook, Twitter, etc. has led to a surge of interest in the theory of complex networks-an extension of the classical theory of social graphs that takes into account the inherent complexity and somewhat vague character of the problems studied.
Within just two decades, the theory of complex networks has become a well-established area of research. Dozens of monographs have been published on the subject (see, e.g., [37][38][39]), and a wealth of papers have been devoted to this topic (see, for instance, [40] and [41] for a good overview and introduction). The scope of classical complex network theory is mostly restricted to the study of statistical properties of undirected and/or unweighted graphs. However, there are numerous applications that cannot be considered within this framework and require the use of more general graph structures. In particular, there has been a growing interest in studying signed networks, i.e., the networks where two nodes are connected by a signed relation.
The idea of a systematic study of positive and negative interpersonal relations was initiated by Heider [42] and further developed by Cartwright and Harary [43] within a graph-theoretic framework. In that setup, one considers different individuals as vertices of a (large) network, whereas the interpersonal relations are represented by edges (or links) that can be either positive (which corresponds to friendship, trust, esteem, etc.) or negative (enmity, distrust, disrespect, etc.) The elementary building blocks of such a network are the triangles, i.e., the groups of three individuals (vertices) that are mutually connected by edges of either sign. It had been postulated that the distribution of edges' signs determines whether the considered triple is balanced or not. For instance, if Mary is friends with Mike and Zoe, but Mike and Zoe hate each other, such a group will not likely be balanced. More formally, a triangle is said to be balanced if the product of edges' signs is positive and unbalanced otherwise. In Figure 1, all possible interrelation structures (up to an edge relabeling) within a triangle are shown. The balanced triangles are drawn in blue, while the unbalanced ones are drawn in red. More complex structures, e.g., consisting of 4, 5, or more individuals, can be classified along this line, but the interpretation of the results is not that straightforward. Since the seminal work by Harary [44], many results aimed at formally characterizing and measuring the extent of balance in a given signed network have been presented. See, e.g., [45] for an overview and [46] for recent results.
The theory of structural balance can be naturally generalized to the case when we consider various social groups instead of individuals: religious communities, political parties, or countries. In [47], a signed social network describing the relational structure of tribes, living in the Eastern Central Highlands of New Guinea, was presented. This network contains 16 tribes connected by friendship ("rova") and enmity ("hina") relations. It had been shown that all tribes can be separated into two groups such that the respective tribes are connected by the friendship relation within each group, while the tribes from different groups are set against each other. In the paper by Kropivnik and Mrvar [48], a similar Philosophies 2021, 6, 2 7 of 13 analysis was performed for the parliamentary parties in Slovenia in 1996. It turned out that all parties could be divided into two groups such that parties within one group were close to each other and the parties from different groups were far apart. It is interesting to note that the relations of closeness (or similarity) and distance (or dissimilarity) were estimated according to several criteria however, the results remained the same. We also mention a recent paper [49], where the dynamics of the international relations of nations within the period from 1946 through 1999 were studied within the framework of signed networks. The theory of structural balance can be naturally generalized to the case when we consider various social groups instead of individuals: religious communities, political parties, or countries. In [47], a signed social network describing the relational structure of tribes, living in the Eastern Central Highlands of New Guinea, was presented. This network contains 16 tribes connected by friendship ("rova") and enmity ("hina") relations. It had been shown that all tribes can be separated into two groups such that the respective tribes are connected by the friendship relation within each group, while the tribes from different groups are set against each other. In the paper by Kropivnik and Mrvar [48], a similar analysis was performed for the parliamentary parties in Slovenia in 1996. It turned out that all parties could be divided into two groups such that parties within one group were close to each other and the parties from different groups were far apart. It is interesting to note that the relations of closeness (or similarity) and distance (or dissimilarity) were estimated according to several criteria however, the results remained the same. We also mention a recent paper [49], where the dynamics of the international relations of nations within the period from 1946 through 1999 were studied within the framework of signed networks.
While the examples described above study the static structure of signed social networks, it is of interest to analyze the temporal evolution of such networked structures. In the paper [50], the authors used signed social networks to describe the evolution of the political relations between leading European countries within the period from the establishment of Three Emperors' League in 1872 to the beginning of World War I. The authors showed that the development of international relations had led to the emergence of a balanced structure comprised of two antagonist groups. While being inherently balanced, such a structure turned out to be unstable at a meta-level: two alliances clashed in a global conflict, now known as the First World War. Further along this line, it has been argued in [551] that the notion of structural balance must be refined to satisfy a number of additional requirements (see [45] for an overview of different notions of balance and partial balance in signed networks). Using the introduced formulation, the author showed that some social networks that were previously declared balanced turned out to be highly imbalanced, which indeed agreed with the empirical evidence. However, it remains an open question whether the formulated set of conditions does indeed ensure that the balanced network remains stable. While the examples described above study the static structure of signed social networks, it is of interest to analyze the temporal evolution of such networked structures. In the paper [50], the authors used signed social networks to describe the evolution of the political relations between leading European countries within the period from the establishment of Three Emperors' League in 1872 to the beginning of World War I. The authors showed that the development of international relations had led to the emergence of a balanced structure comprised of two antagonist groups. While being inherently balanced, such a structure turned out to be unstable at a meta-level: two alliances clashed in a global conflict, now known as the First World War. Further along this line, it has been argued in [51] that the notion of structural balance must be refined to satisfy a number of additional requirements (see [45] for an overview of different notions of balance and partial balance in signed networks). Using the introduced formulation, the author showed that some social networks that were previously declared balanced turned out to be highly imbalanced, which indeed agreed with the empirical evidence. However, it remains an open question whether the formulated set of conditions does indeed ensure that the balanced network remains stable.

The Dynamics of Achieving Social Balance
Since most real signed networks are to some extent unbalanced, it is natural to consider the process of balancing. By balancing, we understand the gradual change of the parameters and structure of a network aimed at increasing its balance. The most natural model of balancing consists of "flipping" the signs or even breaking certain edges in order to get rid of "dissenting" relations.
We believe that such actions might be too radical within the context of social relations. Indeed, in real life we often observe the people tend to change their attitudes rather than completely breaking relations with each other. Following this line, we consider a signed network as a dynamic system, in which the attitudes tend to change in a way that leads to a more balanced network. To illustrate this idea, let us assume that the weights of the edges may take values within an extended set {-2, -1, 0, 1, 2}, where the respective attitude ranges Philosophies 2021, 6, 2 8 of 13 from -2 (very negative) through 0 (neutral) to 2 (very positive). Consider two triangles shown in Figure 2: it is intuitively clear that the left triangle is more unbalanced than the central one even though both are formally equally unbalanced, as the product of the weights of the edges is negative in both cases. model of balancing consists of "flipping" the signs or even breaking certain edges in order to get rid of "dissenting" relations.
We believe that such actions might be too radical within the context of social relations. Indeed, in real life we often observe the people tend to change their attitudes rather than completely breaking relations with each other. Following this line, we consider a signed network as a dynamic system, in which the attitudes tend to change in a way that leads to a more balanced network. To illustrate this idea, let us assume that the weights of the edges may take values within an extended set {-2, -1, 0, 1, 2}, where the respective attitude ranges from -2 (very negative) through 0 (neutral) to 2 (very positive). Consider two triangles shown in Figure 2: it is intuitively clear that the left triangle is more unbalanced than the central one even though both are formally equally unbalanced, as the product of the weights of the edges is negative in both cases. Let us dwell a while upon the two left triangles. We can give the following interpretation to the evolution depicted therein. The structure of interaction presented in the most left triangle is clearly unbalanced. Each actor experiences a tension: actor 3 is friends with actors 1 and 2 which, in turn, hate each other. On the other hand, actors 1 and 2 are stressed by the fact that their friend (actor 3) has great relations to their enemy. None of the actors is ready to break the respective positive connection (and it is not clear at all how to break a negative tie). This seems to be a stalemate. But in real life, there is seldom a stalemate. Typically, the situation evolves according to the following scenario: one of the actors starts to rethink the respective relations by either impairing their positive tie(s) or improving the negative one(s). In the described case it was actor 1 who yielded to the pressure by impairing the tie with actor 3 and improving the tie with actor 2. While it is not necessary the case, it seems conceivable that such a re-balancing is likely to be symmetric: deteriorating one tie is accompanied by improving the other one. Such dynamics are to some extent profitable for the respective actor as their loss is (at least partially) compensated for by the gain. In this case, actor 3 is in the worst position as the only option that is left is to deteriorate some of their ties without a chance to get compensation. This suggests that actors 1 and 2 are most likely candidacies for playing a pivotal role in the re-balancing procedure. Now assume that actor 1 continues rethinking their relations and becomes neutral with respect to both other actors, as shown in the most right triangle in Figure 2. There is no longer an imbalance in the system. One might say that the respective triangle is now neutral. In fact, there are only two befriended actors and a third one that is no longer involved in the respective intergroup relations.
To formalize the preceding observations, we introduce several definitions. Let us dwell a while upon the two left triangles. We can give the following interpretation to the evolution depicted therein. The structure of interaction presented in the most left triangle is clearly unbalanced. Each actor experiences a tension: actor 3 is friends with actors 1 and 2 which, in turn, hate each other. On the other hand, actors 1 and 2 are stressed by the fact that their friend (actor 3) has great relations to their enemy. None of the actors is ready to break the respective positive connection (and it is not clear at all how to break a negative tie). This seems to be a stalemate. But in real life, there is seldom a stalemate. Typically, the situation evolves according to the following scenario: one of the actors starts to rethink the respective relations by either impairing their positive tie(s) or improving the negative one(s). In the described case it was actor 1 who yielded to the pressure by impairing the tie with actor 3 and improving the tie with actor 2. While it is not necessary the case, it seems conceivable that such a re-balancing is likely to be symmetric: deteriorating one tie is accompanied by improving the other one. Such dynamics are to some extent profitable for the respective actor as their loss is (at least partially) compensated for by the gain. In this case, actor 3 is in the worst position as the only option that is left is to deteriorate some of their ties without a chance to get compensation. This suggests that actors 1 and 2 are most likely candidacies for playing a pivotal role in the re-balancing procedure. Now assume that actor 1 continues rethinking their relations and becomes neutral with respect to both other actors, as shown in the most right triangle in Figure 2. There is no longer an imbalance in the system. One might say that the respective triangle is now neutral. In fact, there are only two befriended actors and a third one that is no longer involved in the respective intergroup relations.

Definition 1. We say that a network is an extended signed network if the set of weights contains zero: W = {-1, 0, 1}. Furthermore, we call a signed network weighted if its set of weights contains more than one positive (or negative) weight.
To formalize the preceding observations, we introduce several definitions.

Definition 1.
We say that a network is an extended signed network if the set of weights contains zero: W = {-1, 0, 1}. Furthermore, we call a signed network weighted if its set of weights contains more than one positive (or negative) weight.
Clearly, the signed network shown in Figure 2 is an extended weighted signed network. In the rest of the paper, we only consider such networks without explicitly mentioning this.
Next, we defined the notion of the degree of social balance. We formulated the definition for a triangle, but it can readily be extended to a general (extended, weighted) signed network.

Definition 2.
Given an extended weighted signed network with 3 vertices (a triangle), the degree of social balance is defined as the average of absolute values of all weights (that is the sum of all absolute values of the weights divided by the number of weights, i.e., by 3) multiplied by 1 if the product of all weights is positive (the network is balanced), by 0 if the product of all weights is equal to 0 (the network is neutral), and by -1 if the product of all weights is negative (the network is imbalanced). We say that a triangle is balanced if the respective degree of social balance is positive, neutral if it is equal to zero, and unbalanced otherwise. We say that one triangle is more imbalanced than the other if its degree of balance is less than the respective degree of the other triangle.
To illustrate this definition, let us consider the triangles shown in Figure 2. The degrees of balance of the respective triangles are (from left to right): -2, -4/3, and 0. We thus immediately observe that the left triangle is most imbalanced, while the right one is neutral.

Remark 1.
Note that the definition of the degree of social balance agrees with the conventional characteristic that is defined as a product of all the weights of a triangle.

Balancing through Splitting
While the balancing process described above reflects many real-life processes, we suggest one more possible scenario of balancing evolution. This scenario is restricted to the case when the actors are not individuals, but rather are groups of people, schools of thought, countries, etc. In this case, there is another possible reaction to the pressure imposed by social imbalance: when an actor feels "stretched" between to mutually exclusive tendencies, one possible response would consist of splitting into two. This is the scenario that we observe when countries divide over religious or nationalistic tensions, when religious movements split over different interpretation of certain dogmas, and so on.
To illustrate the described scenario, let us consider the situation depicted in Figure 3. Consider a triangle describing the relations between three different parties. We assume that parties A and B enjoy good relations with party C, while A and B oppose each other. This forms a tension within this system. One possible way to relax this tension would be to change the attitude of either the first or the second party. However, in practice it is often impossible for the whole party to change its attitude. Rather, the party gets increasingly divided into those who seek to normalize their relations with their opponents and those, who do not wish to do so. This division is indicated by a dashed line that goes through vertex A. As this division grows and gets deeper, it becomes increasingly difficult to maintain the integrity of the party. So, at some point the party splits into two parts: B-phobes (A1) and B-philes (A2). Now the A1 wing gets even more opposed to B, while A2 seeks to improve its relations with B. Also, the relations between A1 and A2 sour as it often happens after a split.
Will the new pattern of relations be more stable than the old one? To check that we compute the degrees of balance for both triangles shown in the right part of Figure 3. Indeed, the degree of balance of the triangle A1-A2-B is 4/3, while for the triangle A2-C-B this characteristic is equal to 5/3. Both numbers are positive, thus implying that the new structure of relations is structurally balanced. Will the new pattern of relations be more stable than the old one? To check that we compute the degrees of balance for both triangles shown in the right part of Figure 3. Indeed, the degree of balance of the triangle A1-A2-B is 4/3, while for the triangle A2-C-B this characteristic is equal to 5/3. Both numbers are positive, thus implying that the new structure of relations is structurally balanced.

Graph-Theoretic Interpretation and Formalization of Relations between Judaean Sects
In line with the analysis and interpretation detailed in Section 2, we will identify early Essenes with Qumranites. Hence, all observations, made on the basis of the analysis of Qumran scrolls, will be extended to characterize the movement of Essenes. Following this convention and the analysis, presented in Section 3, we can describe the original structure of relations between Essenes, Sadducees, and Pharisees by using the triangle shown in Figure 4a. While good relation between Sadducees and Essenes was determined by their common origin (priests of the Zadokite lineage) and can be estimated-at least originally-as good enough, the relationship between Essenes and Pharisees was notably bad ("interpreters of slippery things", etc.) The relations between Sadducees and Pharisees were ambivalent and during different periods of the second and the first centuries BCE were characterized both by animosity and (sporadic) cooperation (especially after the invasion of the Romans in Judaea). However, both Sadducees and Pharisees participated in the temple service, sat together in the Sanhedrin, were alternately favorites at the courts of the Hasmonaeans and Herod the Great, and then were mediators at the Roman prefects and procurators. Thus, we assessed the respective relationship as being sufficiently good (except for during the periods of Alexander Jannaeus and Alexandra Salome).
compute the degrees of balance for both triangles shown in the right part of Figure 3. Indeed, the degree of balance of the triangle A1-A2-B is 4/3, while for the triangle A2-C-B this characteristic is equal to 5/3. Both numbers are positive, thus implying that the new structure of relations is structurally balanced.

Graph-Theoretic Interpretation and Formalization of Relations between Judaean Sects
In line with the analysis and interpretation detailed in Section 2, we will identify early Essenes with Qumranites. Hence, all observations, made on the basis of the analysis of Qumran scrolls, will be extended to characterize the movement of Essenes. Following this convention and the analysis, presented in Section 3, we can describe the original structure of relations between Essenes, Sadducees, and Pharisees by using the triangle shown in Figure 4a. While good relation between Sadducees and Essenes was determined by their common origin (priests of the Zadokite lineage) and can be estimated-at least originally-as good enough, the relationship between Essenes and Pharisees was notably bad ("interpreters of slippery things", etc.) The relations between Sadducees and Pharisees were ambivalent and during different periods of the second and the first centuries BCE were characterized both by animosity and (sporadic) cooperation (especially after the invasion of the Romans in Judaea). However, both Sadducees and Pharisees participated in the temple service, sat together in the Sanhedrin, were alternately favorites at the courts of the Hasmonaeans and Herod the Great, and then were mediators at the Roman prefects and procurators. Thus, we assessed the respective relationship as being sufficiently good (except for during the periods of Alexander Jannaeus and Alexandra Salome).  As time went on, the relations between different sects underwent substantial changes that were partially determined by the evolution of political and religious creeds of the respective groups, but also reflected the changing geopolitical situation in the region. The relations between the Sadducees and the Essenes had soured to some extent due to halakhic, i.e., ritual differences and the fact that the Essenes used the solar calendar. The latter immediately separated the Essenes from the temple service and caused strong disagreements with other movements (holidays on different days, etc.) This disagreement was perceived as a violation of world harmony as a whole by those who are wrong in terms of rituals, rest, etc. On the other hand, the relations of the Essenes with the Pharisees somewhat improved due to the external pressure exerted on the whole Jewish community by the Romans. The appearance of the common enemy had led to a partial political alignment of the Essenes and Pharisees. These changes resulted in a new relation structure, as shown in Figure 4b. We observe that the new structure has a larger degree of balance than the previous one, which reflects an overall tendency to achieving a more balanced structure.
Later, pressure from the Roman Empire started to play an increased role in the political life of Judaea. This led to the appearance of a new movement, Zealots, who were utterly opposed to direct Roman rule. This movement joined parts of both the Pharisees and Essenes and thus it enjoyed relatively good relations with both sides. On the other hand, the relations between the Essenes and Sadducees continued to worsen. The structure of relations at the first half of the 1st century CE is presented in Figure 4c. We note that the resulting structure is completely balanced. We might also conjecture that-as the theory of social balance predicts-the relations between Zealots and Sadducees should be rather negative, than positive. However, there is not enough historical evidence to conclude this with certainty.

Discussions
In this contribution, we have shown that while the relations between different Jewish sects were determined by different factors, both of local and global nature, the overall evolution of their relations developed toward more socially balanced structures. It is interesting to observe that during this evolution, we observed different scenarios aimed at achieving social balance: redistribution of the weights between different edges (i.e., rethinking the relations between different sects) and splitting of a single agent into two, thus relieving the tension within the respective group. This paper does not present an ultimate answer to the problem of relations between different Jewish sects, but it can point towards different aspects that require additional attention from researchers. Our future work will concentrate on considering the described problem within a more general framework and finding further evidence reinforcing the formulated results.

Data Availability Statement:
The data presented in this study are contained within the article.