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Xenophobia, misogyny and rape culture


 The present article explores the interface between online misogyny and xenophobia in the context of both
 socio-cultural factors which are conducive to verbal aggression against women and cyberspace’s technological affordances. The
 former, as will be argued, can be linked to “rape culture”, where the notions of rape and sexual violence are used not only as
 instruments of subjugation and domination, but also as tools to legitimize racial, ethnic, or religious hatred. In the case of the
 latter, anonymity, interactivity and connectivity will be discussed as factors which facilitate generating, amplifying and
 perpetuating hateful and aggressive content online. Applying the Media Proximization Approach (Kopytowska 2013, 2015a, 2018a,
 2018b, 2020) and drawing on
 previous research examining online xenophobic discourses and hate speech, the article scrutinizes hate speech targeting female
 politicians, namely Angela Merkel, current Chancellor of Germany, and Ewa Kopacz, former Polish Prime Minister, for their
 pro-refugee stance and migration policy. Data-wise, the examples analyzed will be taken from the corpora comprising comments
 following online articles in 
 niezalezna.pl
 (a Polish conservative
 news portal) and YouTube videos on migrants and refugees.