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IMPROVED SSRs-BASED GENETIC DIVERSITY ASSESSMENT OF COCONUTS (COCOS NUCIFERA L) ALONG THE COAST OF KENYA

Coconut is the most important cash crop along the Coast of Kenya, yet its genetic diversity has not been fully established. A genetic diversity study of 48 coconut genotypes that were collected along the Coast of Kenya was conducted with 13 polymorphic short sequence repeats (SSRs) markers. SSR analysis was performed using GeneMapper while data analysis was done with PowerMarker and DARwin softwares. The results revealed a total of 68 alleles ranging from 2 to 11 per locus with a mean of 5.23 per marker. Gene diversity and polymorphic information content (PIC) ranged between 0.41 to 0.83 and 0.33 to 0.79, respectively. A neighbour-joining dendrogram grouped the genotypes into three major clusters containing distinct sub-clusters. This study underscored that capillary electrophoresis is a more accurate and informative technique for SSRs allele scoring than agarose gels, which was reported in a previous study with the same SSRs markers and coconut genotypes in Kenya. The clusters observed forms the basis to isolate conservation blocks, which are the key to establishing a genebank, since there is no documented coconut genebank for ex-situ conservation in Kenya.


INTRODUCTION
Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) is the main tropical cash crop and it provides a source of income to the people of the coastal lowlands of Kenya (Wekesa et al., 2017). Coconut is proposed to have originated from south Asia and disseminated initially to the Pacific and East African shores by floating on sea waves and later to the Atlantic and American shores by humans after cultivation (Harries, 1978). Consequently, in most studies, African and South Pacific coconut germplasm are closely related to those in the South Asian subcontinent (Lebrun et al., 1998;Teulat et al., 2000;Perera et al., 2003). The tall (up to 60 feet) and dwarf (up to 25 feet) coconut types as well as their intermediates, which are thought to be their hybrids (16 feet), are found at the coast of Kenya (Oyoo et al., 2015). Diversity is higher in Tall coconut varieties, which are outcrossing, than in the in-breeding Dwarf varieties (Teulat et al., 2000;Meerow et al., 2003). These varieties contribute significantly towards their social, economic and environmental wellbeing of the coastal people in the following counties where they are grown; Kwale, Kilifi, Mombasa, Tana River, Lamu and Taita Taveta. The coconut industry plays an important role in the protection of fragile environments such as small islands and coastal zones as well as providing a good tropical canopy for the tourism industry (Bourdeix and Prades., 2018).
Despite these diverse ecological services, the genetic diversity of coconut germplasm is under threat from climate change, pests and diseases, poor conservation strategies and urbanization, logging for timber and land fragmentation for housing, especially in coconut growing areas (Batugal et al., 2009;Martinez et al., 2009).
Assessment of the genetic diversity is an essential component of coconut genetic resource characterisation, genetic improvement and adoption of conservation strategies (George and Angels, 2008). For coconut, germplasm from different geographical areas might look similar but may be genetically different. They might also show morphological differences but may be genetically the same. Molecular marker technologies reduce the inclusion of duplicates in breeding programmes and conservation blocks (Batugal et al., 2009). Once the genetic diversity has been assessed using reliable DNA markers such as short sequence repeats (SSRs), distinct coconut representatives can be identified, collected and conserved in genebanks. Coconut diversity hotspots can be documented with precision and the richness of the genepool can be determined and regeneration of conserved accessions can be enhanced (Rao, 2004;Yao et al., 2013).
Molecular marker technology is an ideal tool for assessing coconut genetic diversity within and between coconut populations (Batugal et al., 2009). Genomic markers such as Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) (Masumbuko et al., 2014), Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) (Lebrun et al., 1998), Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) (Perera et al., 2000 andTeulat et al., 2000), Short Sequence Repeats (SSRs) or microsatellites (Dasanayaka et al., 2009;Martinez et al., 2009;Xiao et al., 2013) and inter-simple sequence repeats (ISSRs) (Manimekalai and Nagarajan, 2006) have been used to characterise coconut populations. Diversity in worldwide coconut germplasm show grouping patterns primarily according to dissemination routes from their source of origin (Rivera et al., 1999;Perera et al., 2003). SSR has been shown to be the most efficient and valuable molecular marker technology for genetic diversity studies and variety identification as are rich in polymorphism, high stability, and good repeatability (Dong et al., 2017) Effective coconut genebanking strategies rely on analysis of genetic diversity at the DNA level in two ways: (1) to ensure that distinct coconut varieties from different geographical areas are represented in genebanks and (2) the DNA profiles serve as reference in regeneration of old coconut accessions for the maintenance of important agronomic traits [(Rao and Tobby (2004), Dasanayaka et al., 2009) and (Martial et al., 2013)].
The binary scoring method based on the presence or absence of bands (Wang et al., 2009), was deployed in the previous study (Oyoo et al., 2016). The genetic diversity of the same set of coconut germplasm using 13 SSRs markers failed to provide accurate genetic distances of the germplasm. Presently, the famous method for gene detection and isolation is polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) or agarose gel electrophoresis. However, these cannot reveal the accurate size of amplified target DNA fragments and has low detection efficiency. Furthermore, it is difficult to effectively integrate and accurately compare DNA fingerprinting data from large-scale samples and different batches of samples. Capillary electrophoresis based on DNA band and accurately determines the size of detected fragments thereby identifying subtle length differences. This study reported here employed the more informative and accurate capillary electrophoresis approach to resolve the multiple alleles that could be generated for a single marker across the 48 coconut genotypes and precisely Page 4 of 31 sized them. In SSRs analyses, a missing amplification band does not indicate an absent SSRs allele. Furthermore, a visible band that appears in several different individuals are often several alleles with slightly different sizes (Mueller and Wolfenbarger, 1999). Some samples may present two different alleles for a single marker, indicating a heterozygous locus where the two diploid chromosomes each carry a different allele. Therefore, when SSRs markers are scored as presence or absence of alleles, such as when using agarose gels, their co-dominance and multi-allelic features are not considered, which can lead to misinterpretations (Jones et al., 1997;Wang et al., 2003).
The objective of this study was to describe the diversity of 48 coconut palms growing along the coast of Kenya using improved SSRs markers resolved by capillary electrophoresis.

Area of study
The study is confined in the coastal region of Kenya which covers an area of approximately 82,383 km 2 with a population of 4,329,474 (KNBS, 2019). The coastal region is comprised of 6 counties namely: Lamu, Kwale, Kilifi, Tana River, Mombasa and Taita Taveta. These counties in Kenya are known for their coconut diversity as reported in the previous study; Oyoo et al., (2015). The climate of this area is tropical humid with an annual mean rainfall of about 1200 mm mainly confined to the long rains between April to July and short rains between October and December (Mwachiro and Gakure, 2011).

Sampling
Coconut leaf samples were obtained from the coastal region of Kenya in the following four counties; Kwale (GPS), Kilifi (GPS), Tana River (GPS) and Lamu (GPS). A total of 48 individual coconut genotypes previously collected by Oyoo et al., (2015) comprising of; 37 Tall, 8 Semi-tall (hybrids) and 3 Dwarf types. They were from different agro-ecological zones of the Coastal Lowlands of Kenya. Leaf samples were collected and coded according to the county of collection, district, division, sub-division, collection number and village.
Sample collection was designed to account for differences in palm morphology, altitude, cropping systems and the local names.

DNA Extraction and Evaluation
Page 5 of 31 DNA was extracted from dry, frozen coconut leaves (preserved in silica gel at -20 °C) of the 48 varieties (tall, dwarf and hybrids) using a modified CTAB protocol described by Doyle and Doyle (1987). Two steel balls were placed in 2 mL labelled eppendorf tubes for each sample. Approximately 80 mg of dry leaves were weighed from each sample, cut into small pieces and ground into a fine powder to increase surface area for detergent activity, using a Tissue Lyser II (Qiagen®). This was followed by incubation with 800 µL of preheated CTAB extraction buffer (3 % CTAB w/v, 100 mM Tris-HCI (pH 8.0), 1.4 M NaCl, 20 mM EDTA, 3 % β-mercaptoethanol (BME), 2 % Polyvinylpyrollidone (PVP)(w/v) in a water bath at 65 °C for 30 minutes with occasional mixing. BME 3 % was used in a replica experiment to determine if it reduced the degree of degradation. Solvent extraction was done by adding 800 µl of chloroform:isoamyl alcohol (24:1) followed by thorough mixing. They were then centrifuged for 10 minutes at 13000 rpm and approximately 500 µL of the supernatant was were visualized under UV light and photographed using a transilluminator. The amount and purity of the DNA quantity was determined by spectrophotometry using a Nanodrop© 1000 (Thermo Scientific, USA). Programmed to measure absorbance (A) from; 220 to 350 nm and display the DNA concentration according to Wilfinger et al., (1997).

Total volume 10
A total of 30 pairs of SSRs primers (supplementary Table 2) developed by Perera et al. (2000) were used in this study. For detection of PCR fragments during capillary Page 7 of 31 electrophoresis, each forward primer was labeled with one of the three 6-Carboxyfluorescein fluorescent dyes: 6-FAM®, 6-VIC ® or 6-PET® (Life Technologies Corporation, Carlsbad, USA). During capillary electrophoresis, the amplification products passed through a detection window and a light excited the fluorescent dye. The fluorescence was then visualized using a computer programme as relative fluorescent units (RFU) against fragment length in base pairs. An allele was scored for each data point as length in base pairs at the highest RFU peak.
Reactions were performed on a thermocycler (GeneAmp PCR system 9700®, Applied Biosystems, USA). Initially, the thermocycler was progammed with an initial denaturation of 94 ºC for 5 minutes, followed by 35 cycles of 95 ºC for 30 seconds, 57 ºC for 1 minute, and elongation at 72 ºC for 2 minutes. Final elongation was done at 72 ºC for 20 minutes, and PCR products held at 15 ºC. Since the markers had a range of annealing temperatures from 56 -46 ºC, this protocol did not work well for all primer sets and a gradient PCR protocol was introduced. The thermocycler was programmed with an initial denaturation of 94 ºC for 3 minutes followed by 16 touch down cycles of 62 ºC annealing for 15 seconds and 72 ºC for 15 seconds in every cycle, with the annealing temperature decreased by 1 ºC in each subsequent cycle, generating a range of annealing temperatures from 62 ºC to 46 ºC. This was followed by 21 cycles of 95 ºC for 15 seconds, 58 ºC for 15 seconds and 72 ºC for 30 seconds. Final chain elongation was done at 72 ºC for 7 minutes and reaction products held at 15 ºC. To amplify markers that did not succeed with this protocol, the touch down cycles were increased from 10 to 15 cycles and the annealing time increased by 15 seconds. The protocol is summarised in Table 2 and was adopted after optimization of the annealing temperatures. analysis, 2.0 µl -3.0 µl of 2 different markers amplification products were co-loaded along with the internal size standard, GeneScan™ -500 LIZ® (Applied Biosystems, USA) and Hi -Di™ Formamide (Applied Biosystems, USA). The DNA (PCR products) in this mixture was denatured for 3 minutes at 95 ºC and chilled on ice for a few minutes.
The products were then separated by capillary electrophoresis using an ABI Prism® 3730 Genetic analyzer (Applied Biosystems, USA) (Koumi et al., 2004). This provided automated and accurate estimates of allele sizes, which is better than using traditional gels because of the differences that can occur in migration between lanes in a gel (Life Technologies Corporation user guide, Carlsbad USA).

Fragment Analysis
Fragment analysis was performed using Gene Mapper 4.0 (Applied Biosystems, USA) and allelic data for every marker was further analyzed by PowerMarker V3.25 (Liu and Muse, 2005) and DARwinV.6 (Dissimilarity Analysis and Representation for Windows®) software (Perrier and Jacquemound-Collet, 2006). Analysis of the molecular variance (AMOVA) was performed using Arlequin V.3.5.2.2. PowerMarker calculates a Table of summary statistics including inbreeding co-efficient, gene diversity and polymorphic information content (PIC), allele number; estimation of allelic and genotypic frequency, Hardy-Weinberg disequilibrium and linkage disequilibrium. PIC, which is a measure of diversity,was calculated using the formula: Where P lu is the allele population frequency at the l th locus and P lv is the genotype population frequency at the l th locus.
Page 9 of 31 Dissimilarity was calculated by Darwin software using the formula: Where d ij is the dissimilarity between units i and j, L is the number of loci, π is the ploidy and ml is the number of matching alleles for locus l.
DARwin was also used to display dendograms based on coconut evolutionary relationships using the dissimilarity matrix (Perrier and Jacquemound-Collet, 2006) as well as Principle Coordinate Analysis (PCOA) graphs

Genotyping the coconut genotypes using capillary electrophoresis
Some common markers were used in the current study and that of Oyoo et al. (2016). The common markers used were CAC02, CAC03, CAC04, CAC06, CAC56, CAC72 and CN1C6, while CAC13, CAC20, CAC65, CN11E10, CN1G4, CN2A4 were specific to this study.  Figure 2 shows the bands from 7 polymorphic markers used to amplify three random coconut DNA samples using 2 % agarose gel electrophoresis using similar procedure as used by Oyoo et al., (2016). From this, it was not possible to tell by visual assessment alone whether the PCR products generated for each marker were similar or of different sizes. For example, for marker CAC20, the allele sizes indicated on the gel look the same (figure 2), but capillary electrophoresis determined that they were actually different band scores; 161 bp, 163 bp and 165 bp respectively. It should also be noted that CAC56, CAC03, CAC13, CAC20 and CAC72 displayed the co-dominance of SSRs markers, presenting two heterozygous alleles for some of the genotypes; this was not distinguishable in the previous work by Oyoo et al., 2016. In contrast, in the current study, differences in allele sizes amplified for a single marker for the 48 coconut DNA samples were precisely assessed with capillary electrophoresis. For example, for CAC56, 6 possible genotypes were distinguished (Supplementary Table 1).
Furthermore, none of the 13 polymorphic markers used in this study presented any absent alleles. Such absent PCR products should be considered carefully as they could have occurred as a result of failed PCR amplification or failure of primers to bind to the allele locus, and not necessarily due to an absent allele.

Genomic diversity studies
The allelic data for the 13 SSRs markers was analyzed by PowerMarker® version 3.25 and the summary statistics of allele frequencies, heterozygosity, polymorphic information content, gene diversity, allele number and number of genotypes discerned by each marker are presented in Table 3.

Polymorphism of the SSRs and Genetic Diversity of cape goose berry accessions
An average of 5 genotypes were detected by each marker in the study, marker CAC72 was the most sensitive because it differentiated the coconut population into twelve genotypes while markers CAC03, CAC13 and CN11E01 were the least sensitive differentiating only two genotypes. Overall, six SSR markers were able to differentiate the population into more than five genotypes and were considered to be sensitive (Table 3). The other six SSRs differentiated the population into either two, three or four genotypes only and were considered to be less sensitive.
In this study, a total of 68 observed alleles were detected, ranging from 2 for markers CN11E10, CAC13 and CAC03 to 11 for marker CAC72 with a mean of 5.231 alleles per marker. The numbers of alleles reported in the study are comparatively higher than those reported by Oyoo et al., 2016 using agarose gel electrophoresis. This finding informs that capillary electrophoresis has a higher resolution of detecting different alleles at a given locus than gel electrophoresis.
The highest major allele frequency was 0.708 (CN11E10) and the least was 0.208 (CAC02) with a mean 0.472 (maximum possible value is 1). This means that, using capillary higher PIC values. These primers should therefore be given priority in genotyping coconut because they have higher segregation capacity. The PIC values showed in this study were significantly higher compared to Oyoo et al., 2016. This shows that capillary electrophoresis significantly increases the efficacy of SSR markers and therefore increases their resolution for detecting diversity in coconut genotypes. This suggests that these markers are suitable for detecting the genetic diversity of coconut accessions from the Coast of Kenya.
Expected Heterozygosity for the selected markers was generally low with a mean of 0.003 (minimum possible value is 0) indicating that the materials tested were genetically pure, i.e. the loci were stable and not prone to high outcrossing frequencies. These markers were good Page 13 of 31 for diversity studies especially in the tall coconut varieties, due to their outcrossing nature (Oyoo et al., 2016).
The study reaffirms that SSRs are powerful tools in genetic diversity studies and their usefulness could be enhanced if capillary electrophoresis was used than the standard procedure. In DNA markers diversity studies, allelic data analysis is the key towards attaining conclusive and reliable results (Vemireddy, 2007). The choice of allele sizing and separation platforms determines the accuracy in allele sizing, reproducibility and interpretation of the data obtained (Wang et al., 2009). A comparative analysis across 8 microsatellite loci in 12 rice varieties (Vemireddy, 2007) demonstrated that capillary electrophoresis is the most accurate and preferred method for allele size estimation, with errors of less than 0.73 bp compared to slab gels such as polyacrylamide, which produce error rates of up to 1.59 bp and agarose gels, which give error rates of up to 8.03 bp. Capillary electrophoresis has also been proven to have greater reproducibility (3 bp). Oyoo et al. (2016) who used 2 % (w/v) agarose gels could not separate accurately alleles with size differences of as little as 2 bp where the average allele length is 150 to 500 bp long. Such alleles will migrate the same distance in an agarose gel and will therefore be assumed to be of the same size leading to limited interpretation. SSRs results should not be scored as present or absent as they are co-dominant markers and missing alleles can be as a result of low quality DNA or due to a marker that could not bind specifically to the allele locus. In this study, capillary electrophoresis was used to separate alleles and hence added value to the previous study by Oyoo et al., (2016).

Genetic distances of coconut genotypes among counties
The results of partitioning of genetic variance within and among coconut populations sampled presented in Tables 4 and 5. The AMOVA was performed using Arlequin software.
Samples obtained from four Counties; were considered as constituting 4 different populations.
Results of the study showed a significant negative variation -1.59% (p = 0.001), in coconut genotypes in different counties indicating lack of population structuring according to county of collection. While the population molecular variance value reported in this study was lower than that reported by Oyoo et al, 2016 (2%) who used the same markers and gel electrophoresis detection platform, both studies reported lack of population differentiation.
Page 14 of 31 The lack of population differentiation may be attributed to a number of factors; the nature of markers used may lack enough resolution to group the genotypes according to the county of collection (Excoffier et al., 2005). There are chances that similar genotypes were sampled between counties or there is exchange of germplasm by farmers between Counties. The negative variance can also be attributed to the highly outcrossing nature of coconut (Gunn et al., 2011) resulting in exchange of genes between populations/counties and reducing interpopulation diversity compared to within same population (Excoffier et al., 2005).
Overall, no geographical divergence was observed in coconuts evaluated in the study across the selected counties. This result shows that coconut populations in the select counties at the Kenyan coast are similar. Significance level (0.05)

Genetic variations among coconut genotypes within counties
The percentile variation among individuals within counties was not statistically significant 101.10 (p = 0.999) indicating that the differences observed in the coconuts within counties could be due to a shared pedigree within the populations. The percentage variation within individuals in the same county was significant 0.4927 (p = 0.001) indicating existence of different distinct genotypes in the counties. The molecular individual variance was statistically significantly higher than population variance in the study.
Overall, the coconut genotypes within the select Kenyan coastal counties are genetically diverse. It can therefore be inferred that diversity of the coconut in the select counties is as a result of genetics and not geography. Significance level (0.05)

Factorial analysis
Factorial analysis was performed to evaluate the genetic relationship of the genotypes within and between the counties. The scatter plot was derived from the dissimilarity matrix calculated using raw binary data using Darwin 6.0.21 software. Factorial analysis failed to group the genotypes into any discernible pattern either based on county of collection or genetic makeup (Figure 3). This observation further confirms that the technology applied was limited in its resolution of segregating the coconut genotypes.  (Table 3). The lack of population differentiation can also be attributed to high cultivation and domestication coconut leading farmers transferring germplasm within and across the counties.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This study demonstrated that capillary electrophoresis is a superior method for DNA length polymorphisms detection among the studied germplasm as compared to agarose gel electrophoresis. This new information was used to enhance the existing description of the diversity of the genotypes evaluated and guide establishment of a coconut genebank for exsitu conservation. Page 18 of 31 The method still established the narrow genetic base of Kenyan coconut germplasm suggesting a need to expand coconut genetic base in Kenya, through introductions and controlled crosses of elite parents DNA based genetic characterization will also help avoid duplications in conservation blocks and breeding programs, maximising the use of genetic diversity between coconut populations to breed superior varieties and to identify coconut populations with narrow genetic bases and adoption of appropriate conservation strategies (Martial et al., 2013;Rao and Tobby, 2004).