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Contrast in high‐resolution scanning electron microscope images

Current scanning electron microscopes, equipped with field emission guns and high‐performance immersion lenses, can achieve spatial resolutions of the order of 1 nm in both secondary and backscattered imaging modes over a wide range of operating energies. The generation and interpretation of images with nanometre‐scale resolution relies on a detailed knowledge, and application, of electron‐solid interactions. This paper develops the practical steps required to produce a high‐resolution image, and discusses the principles which govern image interpretation. Attention is focused primarily on materials which are low in atomic number and density, such as biological tissue, but the results apply after appropriate scaling of the physical parameters to most other materials.