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Cytotoxic Effect of Propolis Nanoparticles on Ehrlich Ascites Carcinoma Bearing Mice

Background and objective Previous studies have demonstrated the anti-cancer effects of propolis. However, its use is limited because of its poor bioavailability. In the present study, the major objective was to improve propolis bioavailability using a nanosuspension formulation. The cytotoxic effect of propolis nanosuspension (PRO-NS) on the Ehrlich ascites carcinoma (EAC) in female Swiss albino mice was investigated in comparison to the free propolis. Materials and methods A propolis-loaded nanosuspension was formulated by applying solvent-antisolvent nano-precipitation technique. The prepared PRO-NS was characterized for average particle size, polydispersity index (PDI) and zeta potential. Also, the morphology of the nanosuspension particles was investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Moreover, PRO-NS cytotoxicity was tested using EAC bearing mice. The anticancer activity of Pro-NS was assessed by studying tumor volume, life span, viable and non-viable cell count, antioxidant, biochemical estimations and proliferation of EAC cells. Results The results revealed that propolis nanoparticles were relatively spherical in shape with rough surface. The tumor bearing mice treated with PRO-NS showed increased life span and inhibited tumor growth and the proliferation of EAC cells in comparison to the free propolis (p < 0.01). Moreover, Pro-NS ameliorated the increase in serum aspartate transaminase (AST) and alanine transaminase (ALT) activities, IgM and the level of creatinine and urea after implantation of EAC cells. In addition, PRO-NS improved the SOD activity and glutathione content of liver and EAC cells. Furthermore, PRO-NS inhibited the formation of lipid peroxidation products (MDA) and total IgG in EAC tumor bearing mice. Conclusions Our results indicate that PRO-NS has a strong inhibitory activity against growth of tumors in comparison to free propolis. The anti-tumor mechanism may be mediated by preventing oxidative damage, immune-stimulation and induction of apoptosis. How to cite this paper: Abdo, J.A., Alsharif, F.M., Salah, N. and Elkhawaga, O.A.Y. (2019) Cytotoxic Effect of Propolis Nanoparticles on Ehrlich Ascites Carcinoma Bearing Mice. Advances in Nanoparticles, 8, 55-70. https://doi.org/10.4236/anp.2019.84005 Received: September 1, 2019 Accepted: October 8, 2019 Published: October 11, 2019 Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and Scientific Research Publishing Inc. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY 4.0). http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/


Introduction
Cancer is the most life-threatening disease. Cancer nowadays becomes a common disease due to the vast changes in the life style of people and its accounts for second major cause of mortality rate in the world. Chemotherapy and radiotherapy have many untoward side effects on healthy cells and the cancer cells are often drug-resistant [1]. High concentrations of reactive oxygen species (ROS) may induce oxidative damage to cell structures including lipids and membranes, proteins and nucleic acids; this damage is often referred to as oxidative stress and eventually leads to numerous chronic diseases, including atherosclerosis, cancer, diabetes and other degenerative diseases in humans [2]. ROS have previously been revealed to be involved in cancer initiation and promotion, and patients with neoplasms have demonstrated elevated malondialdehyde (MDA) concentrations [3].
Furthermore, several studies indicated that antioxidants inhibit free radical damage suggesting that treatment with a combination of antioxidants may be a potent adjunctive, preventive treatment for cancer [4]. Existing anti-cancer treatments including chemotherapeutic drugs, radiations, surgery are serving their purpose to some extent, but their side effects are much more than it, targeted treatment of disease [5].
Propolis (PRO) is a honey bee product that has a complex chemical composition. PRO has attracted much attention in recent years as a useful substance applied in medicine because of several biological and pharmacological properties [6] such as antimicrobial [7], antioxidant [8], anti-inflammatory [9], anticancer [10] and immunostimulant [11]. PRO antioxidant activity may be contributed to its high content of poly-phenolic composites such as flavonoids, tannins and terpenoids which have free radical scavenging activity [12]. However, PRO use is highly restricted due to its poor bioavailability [13].
Until now, propolis shows low bioavailability, which in turn, reduces propolis therapeutic effects. In 1987, propolis was tested in a clinical trial carried out by Hausen et al. at the dose of 3600 mg/day. However, the concentrations of its metabolites in blood, as determined through HPLC method, were at nanomolar level [14] [15].
Hence, various approaches have been proposed to improve drug bioavailability.
Nano biotechnology is a promising field of nanoscience, which extends the horizon of nano-sized systems for various applications both in the field of biotechnology as well as in the field of Nanomedicine. Nanoparticles exhibit distinct physical and chemical properties compared to their bulk counterparts due to their small size and large surface area, besides high bioavailability, and biodegradability properties [16]. Moreover, nanoparticles enabled targeted drug delivery is found to be efficient for cancer treatment as nanoparticulate can cross some of the biological barriers and achieve therapeutic concentration in tumors even with less dosage of drug administration and spares the surrounding normal tissues from toxic effect [17].
Nanopropolis is a natural nano-material can be useful to medicine [18] and powerful antioxidant [19]. Moreover, it has been reported that the propolis in nanoform is more effective than propolis in terms of antibacterial and antifungal activity [20].
Therefore, the major goal of the present study is to improve propolis oral bioavailability via its use in nanosuspension form. The prepared nanosuspension will be characterized for particle size, size distribution and shape. Also, the antitumor, antioxidant activities and immunological changes as well as cell cycle of Ehrlich ascites carcinoma bearing mice treated with free Egyptian propolis and nanopropolis will be investigated.

Chemicals
Propolis was obtained from Egyptian honeybee keeper. Lecithin was purchased from Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA. DMSO was procured from Al-Nasr Chemicals Co. Cairo, Egypt. All other chemicals and reagents used in this study were of analytical grade and were purchased from Sigma Chemical Co. (St. Louis, MO, USA).
Briefly, dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) and ethanol were used as solvents and lecithin was used as a surfactant to stabilize the formulated propolis nanosuspension. Briefly, the required amount of propolis (6.25 g in 25 mL vehicle) was accurately weighed and divided into two portions. Half amount of propolis was dissolved in DMSO (5% v/v of total vehicle) and the other half was dissolved in 2 mL ethanol. Both solvents were used at 40˚C and under sonication. Lecithin (1% w/v) was dissolved in distilled water in 50 mL beaker. Water was used as the antisolvent. Then, propolis solutions were added drop wise into the antisolvent solution (water and lecithin) under constant stirring using magnetic stirrer. The product was kept under stirring for at least two hours to allow complete evaporation of ethanol. The volume was completed to 25 mL with distilled water and the produced NS was sonicated for 20 -30 min.

Characterization of PRO-NS
The average size of PRO-NS was determined by dynamic light scattering using Zetasizer-Nano-ZSP (Malvern, UK). In addition, the shape of freeze-dried nanosuspension was investigated using SEM (JOEL-JSM-5400 LV scanning electron microscope, Japan).

Ehrlich Ascites Carcinoma Cells
Ehrlich ascites carcinoma cells (EAC) were initially supplied by the National Center Institute, Cairo, Egypt and maintained in female Swiss albino mice through serial intraperitoneal inoculation at 7 or 8 day intervals in our laboratory in an ascites form.

Experimental Design
All experiments were performed using adult female Swiss albino mice, with an average body weight of 25 g purchased from the animal house of the National Cancer Institute, Cairo University, Egypt. The mice were housed in steel mech cage and provided with commercial standard diet and tap water ad libitum.
A total of 60 Swiss albino mice were divided into 6 groups, 10 mice each, according to the following scheme: group 1, control (untreated) mice; groups 2, treated with propolis extract (4 mg/kg consequently) daily by an intragastric tube for 9 days; groups 3 treated with PRO-NS extract (4 mg/kg consequently) daily by an intragastric tube for 9 days; groups 4, mice inoculated intraperitoneally with 1 × 10 6 EAC tumor cells; groups 5, mice were treated by 4 mg/kg propolis extract after 24 hours of implantation of 1 × 10 6 EAC tumor cells; groups 6 mice were treated by 4 mg/kg PRO-NS mice were treated by 4 mg/kg.
After two days of the last treatment, the animals were sacrificed by decapitation.
Ascetic fluid, blood and livers were immediately obtained after the animals were sacrificed. Blood samples allowed clotting for 10 to 15 min, centrifuged and the serum was separated and was kept in −70˚C. An accurately weighed piece of each of livers was homogenized in ice-cold 0.9% saline using a Teflon pestle connected to a homogenizer motor. The homogenates were adjusted at a concentration of 5% (w/v), centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 30 minutes at 4˚C to remove cell debris and nuclei. The resulting supernatant was used for biochemical analysis.

Determination of Viability and Volume of EAC Cells
The cell viability of living EAC cells was tested following the trypan Blue exclusion technique was checked according to the method of Boyse et al. [22]. The volume of harvested EAC cells was estimated directly after collection from mice at times.

Determination of Survival Time
Three groups of mice (n = 12 each) were implanted with Ehrlich carcinoma cells.
One of them was daily treated propolis extract and third group treated PRO-NS (4 mg/kg consequently) daily by an intragastric tube for 9 days.

Enzyme Assay
Serum samples were obtained by centrifugation at 3000 r/min for 20 min and stored at −20˚C for biochemical analysis. creatinine, urea, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and total proteins were estimated in serum using commercial kits (Biodiagnostic Company for Laboratory Services, Giza, Egypt) according to the manufacturer , instructions. Also, after collection of EAC cells from the ascetic fluids by centrifugation (i.e. 1000 -2000 rpm for 10 minutes at 4˚C). Cell pellet and liver were homogenized in a cold buffer and the levels of glutathione (GSH, non-enzymatic antioxidant). Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), an index of lipid peroxidation and superoxide dismutase (SOD, antioxidant enzyme) were measured using assay kits (Biodiagnostic Company for Laboratory Services, Giza, Egypt) according to the manufacturer's instructions.

Measurement of Total IgG and IgM
Total serum IgG and IgM were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) with a mouse IgG ELISA quantification kit and a mouse IgM ELISA quantification kit, respectively (Bethyl Laboratories Inc., Montgomery, TX).

Flow Cytometry
Single cell suspension was prepared from fresh biopsy samples in RPMI-1640 medium. Cells were permeabilized with Triton X-100 followed by staining using propidium iodide as a DNA-specific fluorochrome. Flow cytometric analysis was performed on FACS Calibur Flow Cytometer, Becton Dickinson, Heidelberg, Germany; excitation of fluorescence occurred at 488 nm (15 mw air cooled argon ion lazer) and optimized for linear fluorescence single detection with the use of fluorochrome-labeled microspheres (DNA Checked Beads, Coulter Corp.). Data analysis was performed with DNA analysis software program using a linear S-fit method for cell cycle kinetic analysis. Interpretation of DNA histograms was analyzed using cytoloic software (Coulter Corp.) [23].

Statistical Analysis
All data are expressed as mean ± SD. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by a Tukey's test was used to assess significant differences among all groups using GraphPad Prism Software 5 (LaJolla, CA, USA). P values were considered statistically significant at P < 0.05.

Characterization of Propolis-Nanosuspension (PRO-NS)
3.1.1. Particle Size, Size Distribution (Polydispersity Index, PDI) and Zeta Potential The particle size, PDI and zeta potential values of PRO-NS are presented in Table 1, Figure 1. As can be seen, the PRO-NS formulation showed average particle size of 185.27 ± 26.44 nm with narrow size distribution as indicated by the low PDI value. In addition, PRO-NS had a zeta potential value of −37.97 ± 1.30 mV.

Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
The morphology of PRO-NS with SEM is shown in Figure 2. The SEM images showed that the targeted nanosuspension was roughly spherical shapes. Moreover, no particles aggregation was noticed during the samples microscopic observation.
Results are given as mean ± SD (n = 3). SD: standard deviation, PDI: polydispersity index. and Figure 5). Moreover, the present results showed that the treatment of EAC-beard mice with propolis or PRO-NS leads to a significant decrease in the activity of serum ALT, AST and the levels of creatinine, urea and MDA ( Table   2) compared to that of untreated EAC-beard mice. A significant elevation in the levels of hepatic and ascetic GSH and SOD were obtained in EAC-beard mice treated with propolis or PRO-NS respectively compared to untreated mice (Table 3 and Table 4). The effect of oral administration of propolis and PRO-NS on the hepatic and ascetic MDA levels were illustrated on Table 3 and respectively when compared with the content of total serum IgG in untreated tumor bearing mice ( Figure 6, Figure 7). Figure 8 shows EAC cells proliferation measures by flow cytometer to analyze the component of the cell cycle. It is evident that EAC cells from PRO-NS (Figure 8(c)) or free propolis (Figure 7(b)) treated mice exhibited significantly higher G0/G1% and lower S-phase % and G2/M % as compared with that obtained from untreated mice in addition, subG1 aneuploid peak is observed in propolis and PRO-NS treated mice histogram and this peak is closely associated both with the DNA degradation and morphological changes typical of apoptosis. The results are expressed as mean ± SD. The mean is average of 6 value. *** Significant (P < 0.001 ) compared to saline-treated normal mice. ++, +++ Significant (P < 0.01, 0.001 respectively) compared to saline-treated tumor bearing mice. NS: not significant compared to saline-treated normal mice. The results are expressed as mean ± SD. The mean is average of 6 value. *** Significant (P < 0.001 ) compared to saline-treated normal mice. ++, +++ Significant (P < 0.01, 0.001 respectively) compared to saline-treated tumor bearing mice. NS: not significant compared to saline-treated normal mice. The results are expressed as mean ± SD. The mean is average of 6 value. +, ++, +++: Significant (P < 0.05, P < 0.01, P < 0.001) compared to saline-treated tumor bearing mice.

Discussion
Cancer remains to be one of the most common causes of death. Thus, one of the goals of cancer research has been and continues to be the discovery of natural and synthetic products for cancer prevention and treatment. Among many of the natural products that have been shown to exhibit antimutagenic activity as ascorbic acid [24] and others exhibiting antitumor activity like gossypol, a spermatoxin inhibits growth of different cell lines [25].
The present study aimed to investigate one of the naturally occurring products, propolis. It has been reported that PRO exhibited anticancer activity.
However, propolis suffers a major drawback because of its reduced solubility and hence, poor bioavailability.
Therefore, nanosuspension form of PRO was proposed to overcome these problems. It was found that mean particle size of PRO-NS was in the nano-range with low PDI. In addition, zeta potential of the prepared PRO-NS was high. This high zeta potential value accounts for nanosuspension stability and hence, prevents particle aggregation. Also, the high negative charge helps cell internalization which leads to increased cellular content of the nanoformulation. SEM revealed that particles of the nanosuspension were spherical in shape with no aggregations. This is more likely due to the negative charges on the surface of particles as evidenced by zeta potential measurement. These charges prevent particles aggregation via repelling each other.  [31], who reported that propolis extract increase the free radical scavenging activity through its effect on GSH level and SOD activity. Therapeutic activities of propolis mainly depend on the presence of flavonoids. Flavonoids exhibit a wide range of biological effects including free radical scavenging and antioxidant activities [32] Since propolis has been used empirically for centuries and it was always mentioned as an immunomodulatory agent. In this study, therefore, the effect of propolis and PRO-NS were examined on the production of IgG and IgM in EAC bearing mice, which are responsible for the primary and secondary immune responses. Propolis and PRO-NS administration decreased the production of IgG in EAC bearing mice peripheral blood. However, their administration increased the production of IgM in EAC bearing mice peripheral blood. These results are in agreement with the findings of Takagi et al. [33] who reported that administration of propolis increased IgG production in the early to middle term in rats. Propolis has an interferon (IFN)-like activity to induce and activate macrophages and T-lymphocytes, which may explain the difference between the two results [34]. Activated macrophages secrete cytokines (IL-1, IL-6, IL-12 and TNF-α), and activate T-cells. Furthermore, activated T-cells secrete IFN-γ which inhibits differentiation to antibody-producing B cells. Suzuki et al. [35] reported that propolis increased IFN-γ. Therefore, the cell-mediated immune response is activated, while the humoral immune response is in turn suppressed [36]. As observed in this study, the IFN-like activity of propolis stimulated the cell mediated immune response of macrophages and T-cells, while it suppressed the humoral immune response and reduced antibody production.
The present flow cytometric study supported these findings and showed that PRO-NS not only retarded EAC cells growth by delaying their progression from G0/G1 to the DNA synthetic phase of the cell cycle but also significantly slowed DNA synthesis during the cell cycle in PRO-NS or free propolis treated mice in comparison with that of untreated mice (Figure 8). Considering these cell cycle results with reduced viability, tumor volume, ALT, AST, creatinine, urea, MDA, IgG and increased life span, SOD activity, GSH, IgM, it appeared that PRO-NS might be due to the activation of immune system of tumor-bearing mice treated with PRO-NS more than free propolis and produced apoptotic cells which might be phagocytosed either by macrophages or by adjacent viable cells.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.