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Hyperkinesis in dogs: Six case reports.

Hyperactivity in dogs is a common complaint. In most cases, the hyperactivity is not due to a physiological disorder, but is either normal behavior for the breed or behavior inadvertently conditioned by the owner paying undue attention to it (1-3). Treatment in these cases involves ignoring the activity, redirecting activities to appropriate target objects, and conditioning the animal to an appropriate behavior in lieu of the unwanted activity (2). Punishment is rarely useful because usually it can not be applied properly, i.e. consistently, with proper timing and at the correct intensity. Punishment also tends to increase arousal levels and does not encourage desirable behavior. However, some cases of hyperactivity or hyperexcitability are the result of a physiological disorder. Initially identified in laboratory dogs as an animal model for hyperkinesis or attention deficit disorder in children (4,5), hyperkinesis has also been reported to occur in the pet dog population (6,7). Signs exhibited by these dogs include tachycardia, panting, salivation, antidiuresis, lack of trainability, and failure to habituate to external stimulation (6,7). The pathophysiology underlying the problem is still unclear. It is hypothesized that in children the activity of a regulatory dopaminergic system originating in the midbrain and connected with other parts of the brain, in particular the frontal cortex, is somehow disrupted (8). In the normal individual, this regulatory system is thought -to function as an inhibitory mechanism that modulates arousal in response to stimuli, and thus allows for focusing of attention (9). Investigations on hyperkinetic dogs have mostly implicated dopamine, but also norepinephrine and serotonin in the pathogenesis of the disorder (4-6,10). Differential diagnosis can not be made by clinical signs alone. However, since the disorder is presumably caused by dysfunction of a dopaminergic system, a simple diagnostic test can be performed using the indirect dopamine agonist, dextro(d)-amphetamine. Particulars of the test are described in detail by Campbell (6). The dog is taken to a small examination room (signs of hyperkinesis are exacerbated by confinement) and its activity levels, pulse, respiration, and salivation are noted. The dog is then given 0.2 mg/kg body weight (BW) d-amphetamine per os and taken to a holding area. After 75 minutes (in our experience, effects are often seen much earlier, i.e. after 30 minutes) the dog is taken to a (different) examination room and measurements are repeated. A reduction in the measurements indicates that the dog is hyperkinetic. Treatment can be successful with stimulants, such as d-amphetamine or methylphenidate. Voith (3) recommends initiating treatment with d-amphetamine