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Apocalypse and Atonement in the Politics of Æthelredian England

This paper discusses contemporary responses to the events of the reign of King Æthelred II (“the Unready”) of England (978–1016). It focuses on two particularly well-evidenced interpretations of the tribulations of the age: the penitential view of these as divine punishment, which might be lifted by an appropriate form of atonement; and the apocalyptic view of them as signs of the approaching Last Judgement and end of time. These have traditionally been treated as distinct and mutually exclusive lines of interpretation; however, it is argued here that they were, in fact, intimately related. On this basis, it is suggested that a closer connection existed between penitential and eschatological thought in the early and central Middle Ages than has hitherto been appreciated.