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Building Bridges: Implementing Computer Technology in Organizations

This panel is intended to discuss the interrelationship between the design of new and emerging technologies and the design of receiving organizations. It has been our experience that the design of both the technical and the human systems must be flexible for computer systems to be effectively implemented within organizations. We plan to discuss how these two systems can “co-evolve” to maximize the positive fit between the two. This approach differs somewhat from “traditional” Human Factors. The discipline began by focusing on the design implications of humans' physical characteristics. The study of perceptual capabilities and of physical dimensions and function have been and continue to be critical to the design of numerous products and systems. Design of the workplace draws from these crucial studies. This concentration on the physical human is the basis for the profession, the “First Generation” of Human Factors. The cognitive nature of work became increasingly important as computer systems began to appear in the office. Once this happened, computer systems were being used not just by data processing people, but also by non-technical people. This made it increasingly important to consider the way that these users think. Screen layouts and menu design were the first areas where Human Factors made its mark. More recently, design of software structures has become an increasingly important area where the application of knowledge about how people process and use information has made an impact on how “user-friendly”, or “easy to use” a system is. The design of many and diverse types of products and systems has been influenced by this focus on the cognitive human, by the “Second Generation” of Human Factors. The “Third Generation” of Human Factors was born as a result of the recognition of the impacts of technological systems on organizational systems. This approach, also dubbed “Macroergonomics”, focuses on the application of knowledge both about individuals and about organizations to the design, implementation and use of technology. The macroergonomist's goal is to maximize the acceptance and effective use of technology within organizations and to minimize its potential negative impacts on the organization. Thus, the ideal role of a macroergonomist is to help an organization adapt to new technology and to give feedback to the designers of technology about how this organization functions, in order to incorporate that type of knowledge into the design process. Ideally, this coevolution will occur as the specific technology is being designed for a specific organization. In the “real world”, however, we are usually capable of influencing only future design, while attempting to ensure that existing designs are properly implemented. In either case, it is crucial that the designer as well as the implementer recognize that technological systems are always used in an organizational context which influences use in ways which are not always predictable from knowledge either about the technology itself, or about individuals' physical, cognitive, and psychological functioning. Knowledge of social and social psychological characteristics of people is often a better predictor of organizational behavior, along with an understanding of potential organizational variants which may arise from structure or culture.