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SOME ORIENTATIONAL INFLUENCES OF NONVISUAL, TERRESTRIAL ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS *

The means of geographic orientation of animals, apart from utilization of familiar landmarks or other references fixed in space, intimately involves a simultaneous awareness of spatial cues and time. Time must be expressed in terms of phase angles within such natural geophysical periodicities as the solar day for all spatial cues directly or indirectly related to the earth’s rotation relative to the sun, the lunar day for spatial cues related to the moon, and the sidereal day for star-related cues. Such an intimate relationship between the roles of spatial cues and time is most clearly self-evident for celestial orientation in which the sun, moon, or stars are employed as the spatial or geographic references. The vast majority of investigators concerned with the observed phenomenon of celestial orientation have adopted the assumption, with which most students of biological rhythms and clocks agree, that organisms possess a fully selfcontained means for not only measuring closely the durations of the geophysical periods but also identifying relatively accurately the phase angle within the cycles reached at any given instant. With such a hypothesis of the nature of organismic timing the problem of geographic orientation becomes simplified to that of the search for the specific spatial cues. For many years the postulated endogenous clocks, together with obvious available sensory cues, appeared adequate to account for all the observed orientational behavior of living things. In recent years, however, there has been a rapidly growing realization that the foregoing concepts, by themselves, are inadequate to account for many observable behavioral capacities of living creatures. Living things appear able to receive and even to use in the regulation of their physiology and behavior subtle environmental information with respect to both recognition of time passage within the framework of the natural geophysical cycles and identification of geographic direction. Demanded, therefore, are reevaluations of our former, simplified views of the mechanisms that underly animal navigation and homing. To review the situation briefly, let us first consider the problem of the timing component of the orientational system. It has never been possible to resolve securely the nature of the extraordinary clock system of living creatures, or even the primary question whether the remarkable temperature-independent, drugresistant timing capacity depends upon some still wholly elusive, highly specialized, biochemical oscillator complex, independent of all environmental periodisms, or instead, whether it depends upon a kind of “sensory” capacity for unidentified, systematically varying, subtle, pervasive geophysical parameters. In other words, does the living creature measure the passage of time or does it sense it? In considering the biological clock problem by itself, the quandary was insoluble.