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Truth, Lies and BS; distinguishing classes of dishonesty

In this paper we distinguish three classes of dishonesty: lies, bullshit and deception. We show how these classes can be modelled in classical epistemic logic (S5) as well as in formal argumentation. A lie, in its most simple form, can be defined as the utterence of a statement which the speaker knows not to be true. That is, an agent X is lying on proposition p iff the following holds: utters A (p) ∧ K A (¬p) Another form of dishonesty is to make statements about things one has no proper knowledge of. This is often done out of the desire to appear knowledgeable, even if one in fact is not. The situation here is different from the liar, who tells things he knows to be incorrect. In the remainder of this paper, statements made without the speaker having sufficient knowledge about their validity will be referred to as " bullshit " , sometimes abbreviated to " BS ". We use this somewhat provocative term not only for its conciseness, but also to be in line with existing literature [5, 6] and to allow the reader to easily relate the phenomena described in this paper to his every day life experiences. As described in [5], the difference between lies and BS is that with lies, there exists a negative relation to the truth, whereas with BS, there is from the perspective of the speaker no relationship at all between his statements and the truth. Frankfurt [5] claims that the problem of BS is to some extent caused by the fact that in modern democratic society everyone is supposed to have an opinion about the current social and political issues, even if one does not have the time and means to be properly informed on all relevant aspects. In our view, however, there also exists a more mundane reason. The point is that more and more people started to make a living in professions that aim at generating, processing and providing information. Examples of this are journalists, business consultants, lawyers, financial analysts and even scientists. In these professions, it is vital to appear knowledgeable, even in situations where this is actually not the case. The phenomenal extent to which this happens, as well as its impact on society has been described in [7, 3]. In its simplest form, BS can be characterized as follows: utters A (p) ∧ ¬K A (p) …