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Engineering towards functional tissues and organs

Engineering towards fully functional tissues and organs fall under the widespread banner of tissue engineering and regenerative biology/medicine (which includes therapeutics). This endeavor is said to evolve from the Greek mythical story1 where Prometheus is punished by Zeus who assigned a long winged eagle to feed on Prometheus’s liver, for stealing fire from the Gods. It is said that Prometheus’s liver grew as much it was eaten. Thus, conceptualizing tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. This in its very early stages was investigated by Alexis Carrel and Charles Lindbergh at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research2 and was subsequently clinically implemented in 1954 in renal transplantation medicine in the United States by Joseph Murray and colleagues.3 Both Carrel and Murray were awarded Nobel Prizes for their findings and contributions.4 Although these are hallmarks for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, there are many obstacles and to date we are still grappling with some of these hurdles whist others have to a great extent been understood, and could be argued as being to some degree resolved. Some obstacles we face today range from (1) the ability to grow specialized and unspecialized cells outside the human body in practical quantities while retaining their native functionality, (2) biomaterials (advancing the development of synthetic materials for enhanced bioactivity), (3) advanced approaches for forming three-dimensional fully functional tissues and or organs to (4) controlled vascularization, which are a few examples amongst many.