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Causality and Statistics in Modern Physics1

THE PHILOSOPHY Of science-or at any rate the philosophy of physicshas thrust itself on general attention during this century mainly through two developments-the theory of relativity and quantum theory-and of these, quantum theory, if not the more fundamental, is certainly the more complex and gives rise to the greater variety of problems. It cannot be said that the success achieved with the philosophical problems compares favourably with that attained in the purely physical investigations, and it may perhaps not unfairly be said that the naive realism of the nineteenth century has shed its realism more thoroughly than its naivet6. However, this was perhaps inevitable, though it is none the less regrettable that some of the more extravagant generalisations from the use of the mathematical theory of probability in physics have received such publicity and have been invested with prerogatives that rightly belong only to the mathematical theories within their own sphere. Among the attempts which have been made to interpret the new outlook, that of Professor Bohm seems to me to have special significance, derived not only from the exceptional clarity of his exposition but also from that of the underlying thought. It has a further merit which, so far as I know, it shares with only one other philosophy-that of Eddington. Whereas most philosophical disquisitions on the quantum theory are one-way processes, in which the scientific theories are taken as unquestionable data for philosophical meditation which can result in little, if anything, useful to science, Bohm uses quantum theory as a means of attaining a viewpoint from which physics itself can be surveyed to better advantage and lines of further scientific progress can be discerned. This is surely the