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Regulatory punctuated equilibrium and convergence in the evolution of developmental pathways in direct‐developing sea urchins

Summary We made hybrid crosses between closely and distantly related sea urchin species to test two hypotheses about the evolution of gene regulatory systems in the evolution of ontogenetic pathways and larval form. The first hypothesis is that gene regulatory systems governing development evolve in a punctuational manner during periods of rapid morphological evolution but are relatively stable over long periods of slow morphological evolution. We compared hybrids between direct and indirect developers from closely and distantly related families. Hybrids between eggs of the direct developer Heliocidaris erythrogramma and sperm of the 4‐million year distant species H. tuberculata, an indirect developer, restored feeding larval structures and paternal gene expression that were lost in the evolution of the direct‐developing maternal parent. Hybrids resulting from the cross between eggs of H. erythrogramma and sperm of the 40‐million year distant indirect‐developer Pseudoboletia maculata are strikingly similar to hybrids between the congeneric hybrids. The marked similarities in ontogenetic trajectory and morphological outcome in crosses of involving either closely or distantly related indirect developing species indicates that their regulatory mechanisms interact with those of H. erythrogramma in the same way, supporting remarkable conservation of molecular control pathways among indirect developers. Second, we tested the hypothesis that convergent developmental pathways in independently evolved direct developers reflect convergence of the underlying regulatory systems. Crosses between two independently evolved direct‐developing species from two 70‐million year distant families, H. erythrogramma and Holopneustes purpurescens, produced harmoniously developing hybrid larvae that maintained the direct mode of development and did not exhibit any obvious restoration of indirect‐developing features. These results are consistent with parallel evolution of direct‐developing features in these two lineages.