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Towards a new approach for scientific and technological planning

and theoretical concepts related to this planning approach are also discussed in other papers (Sagasti, 1971 a; 1971 b). In short, the work of Ackoff (1966; 1968; 1970; 1971), Emery (1967), Ozbekhan (1969; 1971), Beer (1966), Emery and Trist (1965), Friend and Jessop (1969), and also that of Friedmann (1967), Harris (1970), and Vickers (1965), provided the elements for organizing the theoretical basis of my approach to planning. This background on planning theory, combined with the critique of current methods for scientific and technological planning (Sagasti, 1970b), with the conceptual model of the nation as a system (Sagasti, 1970a) and the analysis of the Latin America situation (Sagasti, 1972) led to the framework and the methods for scientific and technological planning which will be discussed in the following sections. 3. Principles for scientific and technological planning in underdeveloped countries Five principles for scientific and technological planning in underdeveloped countries have been identified. Each will be listed and discussed in turn. These principles are derived primarily from the work of Ackoff (1971), and Waldo (1969), and they have been examined in the light of the empirical context of the Latin American situation in science and technology. 1) Planning for the development of science and technology should be continuous Planning is a process consisting of decisions made in a set of interrelated and anticipated choice situations. The anticipatory decisions should be modified in the light of new information regarding changes in the system and its environment. In consequence, planning has no natural beginning or end-point and the preparation of documents containing the &dquo;plan&dquo; becomes a by-product of the planning activity, rather than the main justification for it. This implies that all types of anticipatory decisions will be continuously in the making, conditioning each other and interacting in a continuous fashion. It is not possible to stipulate that one type of planning activity precedes the others in a rigid sequential way, they should all take place simultaneously with anticipatory decisions made in one area feeding information into the others. 2) Planning for scientific and technological development should be participative Effective planning cannot be done for a system or organization, it has to be carried out with it. This principle suggests that the involvement of the scient-