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Heterodimerization of UNC-13/RIM regulates synaptic vesicle release probability but not priming

UNC-13 proteins play an essential role in synaptic transmission by recruiting synaptic vesicles (SVs) to become available for release, which is termed SV priming. Here we show that the C2A domain of UNC-13L, like the corresponding domain in mammalian Munc13-1, displays two conserved binding modes: forming C2A/C2A homodimers, or forming a heterodimer with the zinc finger domain of UNC-10/RIM (C2A/RIM). Functional analysis revealed that UNC-13L’s C2A promotes synaptic transmission by regulating a post-priming process. Stimulus-evoked release but not SV priming, was impaired in unc-10 mutants deficient for C2A/RIM heterodimerization, leading to decreased release probability. Disrupting C2A/C2A homodimerization in UNC-13L-rescued animals had no effect on synaptic transmission, but fully restored the evoked release and the release probability of unc-10/RIM mutants deficient for C2A/RIM heterodimerization. Thus, our results support the model that RIM binding C2A releases UNC-13L from an autoinhibitory homodimeric complex to become fusion-competent by functioning as a switch only.

homodimeric complex to become fusion-competent by functioning as a switch only.

Introduction
Neurotransmitters are released by Ca 2+ -triggered synaptic vesicle (SV) exocytosis, a process that is mediated by the SNARE complex, and regulated by synaptic proteins such as Munc18s, Munc13s, RIMs, and synaptotagmins Jahn and Fasshauer, 2012). Prior to their final fusion with the plasma membrane, SVs undergo two crucial steps, docking and priming. These processes ensure that the SVs are translocated to the plasma membrane and become fusioncompetent at the active zone (Sudhof, 2004). Defects in docking or priming produce corresponding decreases in SV exocytosis (Voets et al., 2001;Hammarlund et al., 2007;Han et al., 2011a;Kaeser et al., 2011;Lai et al., 2017). However, post-priming regulation of SV release have also been reported (Pang et al., 2006;Bacaj et al., 2015;Luo et al., 2015). Various studies have demonstrated that Munc13-1, a protein with multiple functional domains, is required for the docking and priming (Aravamudan et al., 1999;Augustin et al., 1999;Richmond et al., 1999), as well as post-priming Ca 2+triggered SV release (Chen et al., 2013;Hu et al., 2013). The functions of Munc13-1 in these processes are believed to be mediated by its central MUN domain which directly interacts with syntaxin and promotes SNARE assembly (Ma et al., 2011;Yang et al., 2015).

Multiple domains of Munc13-1 have been implicated in regulating MUN
domain's SV priming activity (Michelassi et al., 2017;Xu et al., 2017). In mammals, four Munc13 isoforms have been identified, two of which contain an N-terminal C2A domain (Munc13-1 and ubMunc13-2) (Rosenmund et al., 2002;Chen et al., 2013). Betz et al. first found that the C2A domain binds to the zinc finger (ZF) domain or RIM, an active zone protein that is required for SV priming (Betz et al., 2001). A double mutation in mouse RIM's ZF domain (K144/146E) disrupts C2A/RIM heterodimerization (Dulubova et al., 2005) and was subsequently shown to produce a large reduction in the readily releasable pool (RRP) of SVs following Camacho et al., 2017), indicating that C2A binding to RIM plays an important role in SV priming. Apart from forming a heterodimer with RIM, the C2A domain also forms a homodimer, thereby promoting formation of MUNC13-1 homodimers.
This homodimerization, however, is not necessary for SV priming and post-priming SV release .
In contrast, studies in chromaffin cells have shown that a truncated Munc13-1 lacking the N-terminal C2A domain is fully able to mediate vesicle priming (Betz et al., 2001), suggesting that the role of Munc13-1 in priming is independent of the C2A domain and its binding with RIM. Similarly, a recent study in C. elegans found that removing the N-terminal C2A domain from UNC-13L, a Munc13-1 homolog, does not cause a change in the size of the RRP (Zhou et al., 2013a). These conflicting findings have called into doubt whether binding of the C2A domain with RIM is indeed playing a role in SV priming, prompting us to re-analyze the function of both C2A/RIM heterodimerization and C2A/C2A homodimerization using an in vivo system.
Here, we examined the functional importance of the C2A domain by generating a transgenic line of UNC-13L with a point mutation in the C2A domain (K49E) that blocks the formation of C2A/C2A homodimers, and a mutant carrying two mutations in the unc-10/RIM ZF domain (K77/79E) that disrupts C2A/RIM heterodimer formation. We found that tonic neurotransmitter release at a low Ca 2+ concentration and stimulus-evoked release were significantly reduced in the unc-10(nu487 K77/79E) mutants, whereas SV release was normal in the UNC-13L(K49E)-rescued unc-13 mutants. Moreover, the hypertonic sucrose-evoked responses were unaltered following disruption of homodimerization and heterodimerization, suggesting that SV priming is not determined by the state of the C2A domain. Interestingly, simultaneously disrupting C2A/C2A homodimerization in the unc-10(nu487 K77/79E) mutant fully restored both tonic and evoked release.
These results suggest that the synaptic transmission defect in the unc-10(nu487 K77/79E) mutant is most likely caused by formation of more C2A/C2A homodimers, and that the role of UNC-10/RIM binding UNC-13 C2A domain is to release the C2A from an autoinhibitory state, allowing it to become a fusion-competent monomeric form. Finally, we show that UNC-13's C2A domain increases release probability but has little effect on SV priming.

C. elegans
The UNC-13L C2A domain and the UNC-10/RIM ZF domain share high sequence identity with the corresponding domains of mouse Munc13-1 (50%) and RIM (48%) ( Figure 1A, B), suggesting that UNC-13's C2A would form homo-and hetero-dimers in a manner similar to mouse Munc13-1. To test this idea, we directly assessed homoand heterodimer formation by the UNC-13 C2A domain. Gel filtration analysis indicates that recombinant C2A forms a homodimer, and that this homodimerization was disrupted by a mutation (K49E) analogous to that which disrupts Munc13-1 homodimerization ( Figure 1A, C) . To determine if UNC-13L forms a heterodimer with UNC-10/RIM, we performed isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) and co-immunoprecipitation experiments. Our results showed that the UNC-13L C2A domain tightly binds the UNC-10/ RIM ZF domain (Kd=1.29µM,Figures 1D,E), and that this interaction was eliminated by a double mutation in the ZF domain (K77/79E), which is analogous to mutations that disrupt binding of the corresponding mammalian Munc13-1 and RIM domains ( Figure 1D-F) (Dulubova et al., 2005). Thus, our findings confirmed that UNC-13L C2A has the same two binding modes exhibited by mouse Munc13-1.

Disrupting C2A/RIM heterodimerization reduces mEPSCs/mIPSCs in low Ca 2+
We next examined the functional roles of the C2A/C2A homodimerization and C2A/RIM heterodimerization in tonic neurotransmitter release by measuring miniature excitatory/inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs/mIPSCs) at the neuromuscular junction. Both the mEPSCs and the mIPSCs were recorded in the presence of 0mM and 1mM Ca 2+ , as we have previously found that the mIPSCs are nearly arrested in 0mM Ca 2+ but are normal 1mM Ca 2+ in some mutants (Liu et al., 2018), suggesting that different Ca 2+ concentrations should be tested to provide an accurate and thorough evaluation of tonic release. Our results showed that the mEPSCs and mIPSCs were completely abolished in the unc-13(s69) null mutant, and were fully restored by neuronal expression of full-length UNC-13L ( Figure 2).
Deleting the C2A domain (UNC-13LDC2A) significantly decreased mEPSC frequency in both 0mM and 1mM Ca 2+ ( Figure 2B, E, Table 1), demonstrating an important role of the C2A domain in tonic acetylcholine (ACh) release. The mIPSC frequency was significantly decreased in the UNC-13LDC2A rescue animals in 0mM Ca 2+ ( Figure 2C, Table 1), but was unchanged in 1mM Ca 2+ , compared to that in the UNC-13L rescue animals ( Figure 2F). Thus, the UNC-13L C2A domain is important for tonic release of both ACh and GABA; however, the requirement for C2A in GABA release can be bypassed by the presence of extracellular calcium, presumably due to increased release probability. The differential impact of deleting C2A on ACh and GABA release in 1mM Ca 2+ could reflect differences in release probability at these two types of synapses (Liu et al., 2018). In fact, SV release from inhibitory synapses displays a higher release probability than excitatory synapses in the mammalian central nervous system (Zhou et al., 2013b;Zhou et al., 2013c).
We next asked whether C2A/C2A homodimerization or C2A/RIM heterodimerization accounts for the role of the C2A domain in tonic release. To investigate this, we first examined the mEPSCs and mIPSCs in the unc-13 mutants rescued by UNC-13L carrying the K49E mutation, which blocks C2A/C2A homodimerization ( Figure 1B). The mEPSC and mIPSC frequencies in the UNC-13L(K49E) rescue animals were comparable to those in the UNC-13L rescue animals in both 0mM and 1mM Ca 2+ conditions (Figure 2A-F, Table 1), indicating that homodimerization does not affect tonic ACh or GABA release. To determine the role of C2A/RIM heterodimerization, we used crispr to introduce a K77/79E double mutation in the UNC-10 ZF domain, unc-10(nu487 K77/79E). Compared to wild-type animals, unc-10(nu487 K77/79E) mutants display a slightly uncoordinated behaviour (data not shown). Analysis of tonic release showed that the mEPSCs and mIPSCs were markedly reduced in unc-10(nu487 K77/79E) mutants in 0mM Ca 2+ , whereas both were unaltered in 1mM Ca 2+ (Figure 2A-F), suggesting that C2A/RIM heterodimerization is only required for tonic release in low Ca 2+ when release probability is reduced. To confirm this, we measured mEPSCs and mIPSCs in two additional Ca 2+ concentrations (0.05mM and 0.1mM). As shown in Figure 2G, increasing the Ca 2+ concentration from 0mM to 0.05mM and 0.1mM caused a robust enhancement of the mEPSC and mIPSC frequencies in wild-type animals. In unc-10(nu487 K77/79E) mutants, a significantly lower mIPSC frequency was observed in 0.05mM Ca 2+ but not in 0.1mM Ca 2+ , whereas mEPSCs were unaltered in both 0.05mM and 0.1mM Ca 2+ ( Figure 2G). Our results therefore demonstrate that C2A/RIM heterodimerization promotes tonic release but that this effect is bypassed when release probability is increased by raising external Ca 2+ concentrations.

A monomeric C2A domain is fully functional for tonic release
The decreased mEPSC frequency observed in the UNC-13LDC2A rescue animals in 1mM Ca 2+ indicates that the C2A domain may have an additional function in regulating tonic release, particularly in high Ca 2+ . We therefore examined whether simultaneously blocking the homo-and heterodimerization of the C2A domain could account for this additional function. In 0mM Ca 2+ recordings, UNC-13L(K49E); unc-10(nu487 K77/79E) double mutant mIPSC rate was significantly higher than that observed in unc-10(nu487 K77/79E) single mutants, suggesting that blocking homodimer formation was sufficient to prevent the decreased tonic GABA release caused by the unc-10(nu487 K77/79E) mutation ( Figure 2C). By contrast, blocking homodimerization did not significantly improve mEPSC rates in 0mM Ca 2+ in unc-10(nu487 K77/79E) mutants ( Figure 2B). Thus, hetero-dimerization increases tonic GABA release by preventing homo-dimer formation whereas hetero-dimerization promotes tonic ACh release by a distinct mechanism. In addition, the tonic ACh and GABA release were in a wild-type level in the UNC-13L(K49E); unc-10(nu487 K77/79E) double mutant in 1mM Ca 2+ , similar to those in the UNC-13L(K49E) rescue and the unc-10(nu487 K77/79E) mutant ( Figure 2E, F). Taken together, these results demonstrate that blocking C2A homo-and hetero-dimerization does not decrease tonic ACh and GABA release. These results differ from those obtained in the UNC-13LDC2A rescue animals, suggesting that the effect of deleting the C2A domain on the tonic release is not due to a lack of homo-and hetero-dimerization.

Stimulus-evoked release is reduced when C2A/RIM hetero-dimerization is blocked
Next we analysed the impact of C2A interactions on stimulus-evoked ACh release. Compared to UNC-13L, UNC-13LDC2A exhibited a smaller evoked EPSC ( Figure 3A, Table 1), consistent with previous findings (Hu et al., 2013;Zhou et al., 2013a). The evoked EPSCs were significantly smaller in unc-10(nu487 K77/79E) mutants, exhibiting decreased amplitude and total charge transfer compared to wildtype animals ( Figure 3A-C). The percentage decrease of the evoked charge transfer in the unc-10(nu487 K77/79E) mutant (44%) was similar to that observed in the UNC-13LDC2A rescue animals (46%), suggesting that C2A/RIM heterodimerization accounts for the role of the C2A domain in evoked release. Thus, our results demonstrate that C2A/RIM heterodimerization plays an essential role in evoked neurotransmitter release.
Next we asked if C2A homo-dimers regulate evoked responses. The evoked EPSCs mediated by UNC-13L(K49E) were indistinguishable from those rescued by wild type UNC-13L, indicating C2A homo-dimers are not required for evoked responses ( Figure 3A-C). To determine if homo-dimers inhibit evoked ACh release, we analyzed UNC-13L(K49E); unc-10(nu487 K77/79E) double mutants. We found that preventing C2A/C2A homodimerization in the unc-10(nu487 K77/79E) mutant fully restored the evoked EPSC to a wild-type level ( Figure 3A-C). These results suggest that the reduced evoked EPSC caused by blocking C2A/RIM hetero-dimerization is mediated by increased formation of C2A homo-dimers. These results are consistent with prior analysis of mouse synapses, which suggest that Munc13-1 homo-dimers inhibit SV release . These results also demonstrate that the monomeric C2A domain is sufficient to support evoked release, consistent with the observation of tonic release ( Figure 2, Table 1). Thus, the RIM ZF domain appears to function only as a switch which releases the C2A domain from the inhibitory homomeric complex.

The C2A domain is not required for SV priming
A decrease in evoked EPSCs may arise from a priming defect or a change in release probability. We therefore examined whether SV priming is regulated by the C2A domain and its two different states (homodimer and heterodimer). SV priming was measured by the pulsed application of hypertonic sucrose solution (1M, 2s) onto the ventral nerve cord, and the size of the RRP was calculated by integrating the sucrose-evoked current. The current was nearly eliminated in the unc-13 null mutants, and was fully restored by expressing a wild type UNC-13L transgene in all neurons ( Figure 3E). Strikingly, UNC-13L lacking the C2A domain could still restore the sucrose-evoked current to a wild-type level ( Figure 3E, F, Table 1), indicating that the C2A domain is not required for SV priming. These results differ from those reported in mouse hippocampal neurons, in which the RRP was largely reduced when the Munc13-1 C2A domain was removed . Despite these differences, our results, together with those obtained in chromaffin cells in which Munc13-1 lacking the C2A domain enhances secretion as high a level as Munc13-1 (Betz et al., 2001), support the notion that truncated UNC-13 lacking the C2A domain is still able to prime SVs.
The fact that the C2A deletion had no effect on SV priming suggests that C2A/C2A homodimerization and C2A/RIM heterodimerization are also not required for priming. Nevertheless, we assessed the RRP size in the UNC-13L(K49E) rescue animals and the unc-10(K77/79E) mutant. Our data showed that the sucrose-evoked currents in these animals were comparable to those observed in UNC-13L rescue and wild-type animals ( Figure 3E, F), demonstrating that homodimerization or heterodimerization is not playing a role in SV priming. Consequently, the probability of synaptic vesicle release (Pvr) calculated by the ratio of the charge transfer of the evoked EPSCs to the charge transfer of the sucrose-evoked currents was significantly reduced in the DC2A rescue and the unc-10(K77/79E) mutant ( Figure 3G). Together, our results demonstrate that the UNC-13L C2A domain regulates release probability by interacting with the UNC-10/RIM, rather than by regulating SV priming.

Disrupting heterodimerization does not affect synaptic depression and recovery
Due to the reduced Pvr in the unc-10(K77/79E) mutant, we asked whether the synaptic depression and recovery would be altered by the disruption of C2A/RIM heterodimerization. An integrated line expressing channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) in the cholinergic motor neurons (zxIs6) was used to record the EPSCs evoked by a train or a paired light stimulus (Liu et al., 2009). Both the control animals and the unc-10(K77/79E) mutants exhibited synaptic depression following a 1Hz train stimulus ( Figure 4A). The depression rate was described by normalizing the amplitudes of all the EPSCs (EPSCi) to the amplitude of the first EPSC (EPSC1). The unc-10(K77/79E) mutants displayed a similar depression rate to that of the control animals ( Figure 4B), indicating that RIM binding to the C2A domain is not required for synaptic depression. To assess synaptic recovery, we applied a paired stimulus by changing the intervals between the two stimuli (500ms, 1s, 5s, 15s) ( Figure 4C). The recovery rate was quantified by the ratio of the second EPSC amplitude (EPSC2) to the first EPSC amplitude (EPSC1). As shown in Figure 4D, no difference in the recovery rate was observed between the control animals and the unc-10(K77/79E) mutants. This indicates that disrupting C2A/RIM binding does not affect the refilling of the SVs at synapses.

Discussion
In this study, we analyzed the functional importance of the C2A domain of UNC-13L, a Munc13-1 homolog in C. elegans, for SV priming and release probability. Prior studies in mouse and C. elegans have reported contradictory results regarding the role of the C2A domain in priming (Betz et al., 2001;Zhou et al., 2013a;Camacho et al., 2017). This motivated us to investigate the function of this domain, with a particular focus on its two bindings modes, in SV priming and postpriming Ca 2+ -triggered exocytosis. Below we discuss our findings.

UNC-13L primes SVs independently of the C2A domain
The fact that the UNC-13/Munc13 is required for SV priming has been reported in both invertebrates and vertebrates (Aravamudan et al., 1999;Augustin et al., 1999;Richmond et al., 1999). Sucrose-evoked responses are nearly eliminated in neurons lacking UNC-13 or Munc13. Thus far, however, it is still unclear how the priming activity of UNC-13/Munc13 is achieved and regulated. It is believed that the MUN domain plays an essential role in SV priming. Removing the C2A domain from Munc13-1 leads to a marked decrease in the RRP of SVs in cultured hippocampal neurons, suggesting a role for C2A in priming . However, we found that unc-13 mutants lacking a C2A domain (UNC-13LDC2A rescued animals) exhibit a normal RRP, arguing that the C2A domain is not required for priming ( Figure 3E). Zhou et al. showed that an isolated unc-13 mutant (n2609) with a point mutation in the C2A domain of UNC-13L exhibits a similar reduction in evoked EPSCs to UNC-13LDC2A, whereas docked SV numbers are normal in the unc-13(n2609) mutant. This suggests that the C2A domain is not required for docking (Zhou et al., 2013a), consistent with our observations in relation to priming.
Our results imply that UNC-13L regulates SV priming via a different mechanism, and that this mechanism is independent of the C2A domain. Prior studies have shown that a point mutation in the C1 domain of Munc13-1 accelerates hypertonicity-induced SV release without changing the size of the RRP (Basu et al., 2007). Transgenic C. elegans rescued by a truncated UNC-13L lacking its C1 or C2B domain also exhibit a normal RRP (Michelassi et al., 2017). Expression of a mutated Munc13-1 (P827L, located in the linker domain between C2B and MUN) leads to a significant increase in release probability without causing an increase in the size of the RPP (Lipstein et al., 2017). These observations appear to support the notion that the regulatory domains in UNC-13L (e.g. C2A, C1 and C2B) alter release probability but are not required for SV priming. Thus, our results, together with the findings from other studies in C. elegans and mouse, suggest that UNC-13 has multiple regulatory effects on synaptic strength and plasticity, and which are achieved by differential control of release probability by its various functional domains.

State of the C2A domain and release probability
The reduced evoked EPSCs and unchanged RRP in the UNC-13LDC2A rescue animals led to a significant decrease in release probability (Pvr). Similar to these observations, the unc-10(K77/79E) mutant also exhibits an impairment in evoked EPSCs but a normal RRP, thereby leading to a decreased Pvr (Figure 3). These results demonstrate that deleting the C2A domain or blocking C2A/RIM heterodimerization decreases release probability. It should be noted that, release probability remains unchanged in the hippocampal neurons when C2A/RIM heterodimerization is disrupted, due to a similar decrease in the evoked EPSCs and the RRP , different from our findings in this study.
The function of the C2A domain in regulating the release probability appears to be determined by its state. It has been proposed that the Munc13 C2A domain has three binding states, homodimer, heterodimer, and monomer, and that these three forms may co-exist in synaptic terminals. The decrease in evoked EPSC and release probability in the unc-10(nu487 K77/79E) mutant was blocked by disrupting C2A/C2A homodimerization (Figure 3). This indicates that the synaptic transmission defect caused by disrupting C2A/RIM hetero-dimerization occurs because of an increase in C2A/C2A homo-dimerization, which is proposed to comprise an autoinhibitory state. Again, this is post-priming regulation, as SV priming is normal in both the UNC-13L(K49E) rescue and UNC-13L(K49E); unc-10(nu487 K77/79E) animals ( Figure 3E). Although our findings are similar to the observations reported in cultured hippocampal neurons in which the reduced evoked EPSCs caused by the disruption of heterodimerization were partially recovered when homodimerization and heterodimerization were disrupted simultaneously , we found that UNC-13L with a monomeric C2A domain is fully functional for both the priming and post-priming Ca 2+ -triggered tonic and evoked release. Thus, our results support the notion that the homodimerization of the C2A domain inhibits SV release, and that RIM releases the C2A domain from the autoinhibitory homodimeric complex by competitively binding the C2A domain to form a heterodimer, thereby allowing the C2A domain to become fusion-competent. The heterodimer itself, however, does not produce an additional effect on synaptic transmission.

Distinct priming mechanisms between worm and mouse?
RIM binding to Munc13-1 is a key determinant in SV priming in the mouse central nervous system. In fact, deleting Munc13-1 C2A or disrupting C2A/RIM heterodimerization leads to a similar reduction in the size of the RRP with that observed in RIM knockout neurons Camacho et al., 2017).
Whereas SV priming in worm does not rely on the UNC-13 C2A and the heterodimerization of UNC-13/RIM, although this interaction is highly conserved between worm and mouse. This raises a question of whether the UNC-10/RIM is required for priming in worm. Electron microscopy results have revealed that the number of docked SVs is normal in the unc-10 mutant (Koushika et al., 2001;Weimer et al., 2006;Gracheva et al., 2008), demonstrating a post-docking role of RIM in the active zone. Consistent with these relatively minor docking defects, we found that the size of the RRP in unc-10 mutants (assessed by sucrose evoked currents) is comparable to that in the wild-type animals (data not shown), demonstrating that UNC-10/RIM is not required for SV priming. These results suggest that UNC-10/RIM primarily regulates SV fusion by increasing release probability and not by promoting SV priming. UNC-10/RIM increases release probability via its ability to bind UNC-13 but also through its requirement for recruiting CaV2 calcium channels to pre-synaptic terminals (Han et al., 2011b;Kaeser et al., 2011;Muller et al., 2012).
Why does RIM play different roles at worm and mouse synapses? SV priming is thought to consist of two sequential steps, termed molecular and positional priming (Neher and Sakaba, 2008). Molecular priming is proposed to account for a slow component of release, which consists of fusion of SVs that are docked far from calcium channels driving release. Positional priming is proposed to mediate a faster form of release, which comprises fusion of SVs that are docked very close to calcium channels. One possibility is that worms rely less on positional priming, which presumably requires UNC-13/RIM interaction, and instead rely more on molecular priming. In this scenario, worm unc-10 RIM mutants would have decreased release probability but relatively normal RRP size. By contrast, mice may require positional priming to maintain the RRP, and thus RIM mutants would have significant priming defects.

Additional functions of the C2A domain
Despite the above findings, the actual mechanism whereby the UNC-13L with a monomeric C2A regulates SV release, however, remains unclear. Based on the normal synaptic transmission in the UNC-13L(K49E); unc-10(nu487 K77/79E) double mutants, RIM binding to the UNC-13L C2A domain only appears to be playing a switch role. The C2A domain must therefore have additional functions for the regulation of SV release. This is confirmed by our observations in relation to tonic release, which has been proposed to have a different regulatory mechanism from evoked release (Ramirez and Kavalali, 2011;Melom et al., 2013). The mEPSC frequency was reduced by 50% in the UNC-13LDC2A rescue animals at both 0mM and 1mM Ca 2+ , similar to the evoked release findings (Figure 2). These results demonstrate that the C2A domain is essential for tonic release at cholinergic synapses.
However, this role cannot be explained by the state of the C2A domain (homodimer, heterodimer, or monomer), as the mEPSC frequencies were normal in the UNC-13L(K49E) rescue, unc-10(nu487 K77/79E) mutant, and UNC-13L(K49E); unc-10(nu487 K77/79E) double mutants in 1mM Ca 2+ . We only observed a change in the Ca 2+ sensitivity in very low Ca 2+ at GABAergic synapses, and this phenotype disappeared when the Ca 2+ levels were increased ( Figure 2G). Our observations at cholinergic synapses therefore demonstrate that, although the C2A/C2A homodimer inhibits evoked release, it does not affect tonic release. There must still be an unknown mechanism by which the monomeric C2A domain regulates post-priming SV exocytosis.

Strains
Strain maintenance and genetic manipulation were performed as previously described (Brenner, 1974). Animals were cultivated at room temperature on nematode growth medium (NGM) agar plates seeded with OP50 bacteria. On the day before experiments L4 larval stage animals were transferred to fresh plates seeded with OP50 bacteria for all the electrophysiological recordings. The following strains were used: Wild type, N2 bristol Transgenic strains were isolated by microinjection of various plasmids using either Pmyo-2::NLS-GFP (KP#1106) or Pmyo-2::NLS-mCherry (KP#1480) as the coinjection marker. Integrated transgenes were obtained by UV irradiation of strains carrying extrachromosomal arrays. All integrated transgenes were outcrossed at least seven times.

Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC)
ITC experiments were performed using a Nano ITC (TA Instruments). ITC titrations were performed in degassed 20 mM HEPES pH 7.5, 150 mM NaCl at 25°C. After baseline subtraction, the area under each peak was integrated and data were fit to a one site Independent binding model using the NanoAnalyze software (TA Instruments) to determine the binding affinity (K), enthalpy (dH) and stoichiometry (n); binding was not observed for unc-10 62-121 K77/79E.

Data acquisition and statistical analysis
All recordings were obtained using a HEKA EPC10 double amplifier (HEKA Elektronik) filtered at 2 kHz, and analyzed by built-in programs in Igor 7 software (WaveMetrics). Each set of data represents the mean ± SEM of an indicated number (n) of animals. Statistical significance was determined using student's-t test or oneway ANOVA followed by Dunnett's test to control for multiple comparisons.   Ca 2+ from the same genotypes in A. (E, F) Quantification of the mEPSC and mIPSC frequency and amplitude from the genotypes in D. Data are mean ± SEM (##, p < 0.01, ###, p < 0.001, n.s., non-significant when compared to UNC-13L rescue; ***, p < 0.001 when compared to wild type; one-way ANOVA). The number of worms analyzed for each genotype is indicated in the bar graphs. (G) Quantification of the mEPSC and mIPSC frequencies at various Ca 2+ levels (0, 0.05, 0.1, and 1mM) from wild type (black) and unc-10(nu487 K77/79E) mutants (red). Data are mean ± SEM (***, p < 0.001, n.s., non-significant when compared to wild type; student's t-test). Data are mean ± SEM (*, p < 0.05, **, p < 0.01, ***, p < 0.001 when compared to wild type; #, p < 0.05, n.s., non-significant when compared to UNC-13L rescue; one-way ANOVA).