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The Long and Winding Road: The Elite, Intellectuals, and From What to Who in Indigenous Identity Formation

E. Bradford Burns wrote that violent conflict between the Latin American ‘folk with their community values’ and the elite defined the 19th century (Burns, 1981, p. 1). Elite triumphs in those conflicts coalesced around nation-building projects. Burns’ ‘folk’ were the ordinary people who shared a common way of life and did not rapidly embrace European or North American political ideologies. Burns suggested that the Indians were more resistant to change than others groups in the folk (1981, pp. 88–89). Burns’ The Poverty of Progress was one of the first books to focus on the significance of the 19th century in the formation of the nation-state and, more importantly, to assert that the folk and the elite together shaped what the state became. Still, much has changed since the 1980s. In recent years, scholars from multiple disciplines have begun to explore indigenous reality in the 19th and 20th century with new eyes and new sources, looking at indigenous–state relationships, land ownership, citizenship, political ideologies, identity, resistance, gender, religion, and indigenous intellectuals (Clark & Becker, 2007; Garrard-Burnett, 1998; Gould, 1998; Gould & Lauria-Santiago, 2004; Grandin, 2000; Guardino, 2005; Thurner, 1997). We no longer view indigenous peoples as the most recalcitrant sector of the folk, but instead see them as often ideologically innovative and politically-savvy citizens of Latin American nations. Violence was one weapon in the arsenal indigenous peoples used to protect and shape their realities, but it was not the weapon of choice (Voss, 2002). More frequently, indigenous peoples relied on petitions, peaceful protest and the courts to defend their interests.