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In situ characterization of Fischer–Tropsch catalysts: a review

In the field of heterogeneous catalysis research, in situ and operando characterization techniques, i.e. characterization techniques which can be applied under realistic reaction conditions and ideally on a working catalyst, become essential in order to generate new knowledge and understanding of structure performance relationships. Only this knowledge will enable researchers to develop or rather design new catalysts for existing and novel processes without relying on an ‘educated guess’ approach. In combination with ever improving theoretical predictions, operando characterization techniques are expected to be the main drivers in catalyst research and associated material science in the foreseeable future. Fischer–Tropsch (FT) catalyst systems, and specifically the iron based catalysts, are highly dynamic under reaction conditions, making deductions on structure-activity relationships difficult when relying on conventional characterization techniques. In addition, various deactivation mechanisms, such as oxidation, poisoning, sintering, attrition and phase separation have been observed. As such, the FT synthesis encompasses several challenges experienced in some form or other in most catalytic applications and material science studies. The present review therefore aims to provide a comprehensive account of characterization techniques employed under (quasi) in situ and operando conditions for FT catalysts. Together with a description of the respective technique and a critical discussion of the employed reaction cell, the actual research conducted is briefly discussed. We hope that this combination will enable readers not only to get a good impression of the capabilities and limitations of the respective technique and available instrumentation but also to understand their applicability in catalysis research and maybe to be inspired to push current boundaries.