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The Emerging Trade in Donkey Hide: An Opportunity or a Threat for Communities in Kenya?

Donkey hides are used in a form of Traditional Chinese medicine called ejiao, the demand for ejiao is currently so high the global donkey population is currently in decline. Africa’s donkey population is considered a key source for the trade, with Kenya being highlighted as being particularly affected. In Kenya donkeys play a vital contribution to people’s livelihoods; this study aimed to explore the potential impact of the donkey hide trade on small holder farmer’s livelihoods. The study was conducted in five counties in Kenya; data was collected using household survey questionnaires, focus group discussions and key informant interviews. When household survey participants (n = 421) were asked if the number of donkeys in their herd had decreased within the last two years 34.2% (n = 144) reported a decrease, of those 43.8% (n = 63) reported the selling of donkeys as the primary cause of reduction in herd size. Increased money spent on the transportation of farm produce, water and firewood was the most frequently reported effect of the loss of donkeys (62.5%, n = 263). Some focus group discussion participants said that they had previously sold their donkeys to raise money for school fees, likewise 43% (n = 97) of focus group discussion participants said that they would sell their donkeys to pay medical bills. Results from the study suggest that small holder farmers are choosing to sell their donkeys for an instant boost in income, but long-term this is unlikely to be a sustainable livelihood option.


Introduction
In many low-and middle-income countries equids make a vital contribution to people's livelihoods [1] [2]. Working equids support people's livelihoods in a range of sectors including construction, agriculture, tourism and public transport [1] [3]. Research conducted in India, Pakistan, Kenya and Ethiopia found that equids were ranked by women as their most important livestock, helping with household tasks and providing regular income [4]. The role of donkeys varies and is dependent upon the communities in which they live and work [5].
Traditional roles have included ploughing, riding, carrying packs, pulling carts and a smaller role in entertainment and food production [5]. Across Africa donkeys are commonly used for a range of work, they are often owned by smallholder farmers, pastoralists and small-scale entrepreneurs in the transport sector [3]. For example, in Ethiopia, which has one of the largest equine populations globally [1], donkeys are used in both urban and rural areas to transport goods from markets [6]. In Ethiopia's capital Addis Ababa, donkeys are commonly used to carry produce from rural areas to markets in the city [6]. A study which explored the economic contribution of donkeys to households living on the outskirts of Addis Ababa, found that 39% of households who had recently acquired a donkey stated that their income had improved [6]. Households also said that they felt relief from the burden of carrying firewood and water; longer term impacts included children being released from their daily chores, and therefore having the opportunity to go to school [6]. Similarly, in Mali a survey of donkey owners found that donkeys provide an important economic contribution to people's livelihoods. The study found that 67% of donkey owners had an average monthly income of (US $167), whilst the average monthly income per capita is (US $55) [7].
In addition to their role as working animals, for centuries donkey meat and milk has been consumed. In Africa within some communities eating donkey meat is seen as taboo, whereas in some it is seen as an affordable source of animal protein [5]. In recent years (particularly in Europe) there has been a rapid increase in the use of donkeys as a source of meat and milk [2]. Although consumption of donkey milk is not a new concept, the number of donkey dairies has increased in Italy, Turkey and Serbia [2]. Recently a Serbian donkey dairy farmer has made news by producing cheese made from donkey milk [8]. The cheese, named pule, has been labeled as the world's most expensive cheese and sells for up to £880/kg per kilo [8]. Donkey meat is also a lucrative product in China, Denmark, Germany and France [9]. The donkey meat and milk industry reportedly has helped increase population numbers of rare breeds in Europe which were facing extinction [8]. Within the Asian market an area that has dramatically increased is the use of donkey hide products [2] [5]. Donkey hides are used in a form of Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) called ejiao. The hides are boiled to produce a firm gel which is dissolved in hot water or alcohol and is used in food drink and beauty products [8]. Ejiao is believed to have a variety of health benefits including improving blood circulation and treatment for reproductive problems [5] [8].
TCM dates back more than 5000 years [10]. In addition to the use of donkey hides, derivatives from a wide range of wild animal species are commonly used [11]. It has been reported that in China 12,772 resources are used in the manufacture of TCM, of these 1574 are derivatives from animals [12]. To meet market demand, many populations of wild species commonly used in TCM have declined, raising concerns that many aspects of wildlife trade are not sustainable [11] [13] [14] and also pose a serious animal welfare threat [13]. Species of wildlife rapidly in decline and often in the media's "spotlight" include rhinos, tigers and pangolins [15] [16] [17]. Derivatives from these animals are used in various TCM products including tonics, powders and wines and are believed by consumers to help treat a range of health conditions [13].
The demand for ejiao is currently so high, the global donkey population is currently in decline [2], with many working donkeys in low-and middle-income countries being used in the trade [2]. Africa's donkey population is considered a key source for the trade [5], with donkeys been slaughtered and traded in Niger, Burkina Faso, Nigeria, Tanzania, South Africa, Ethiopia and Uganda and Kenya [18]. Over the last few years donkey hides exported from sub-Saharan Africa to

Ethics
Ethical approval was gained from Brooke's Animal Welfare and Ethical Review Body.

Subjects and Study Location
The study was conducted between 13 August and 24 August 2018 in five counties in Kenya; these were Kitui, Narok, Nyandarua, Kirinyaga and Bungoma. The study sites were chosen based on the high number of donkeys used by small holder farmers in these counties. Quantitative data was collected using structured household survey questionnaires (household defined as people who dwell under the same roof). Inclusion criteria for participants were previous and current donkey owners. Households were randomly selected from two sub-counties within each of the five selected counties. All sub-counties were listed in an excel spreadsheet and given numbers, using excel random generator, the sub-counties were randomly selected. In total 421 participants (18 years of age and above) were interviewed (M = 251, F = 170) (

Procedure and Data Collection
Quantitative data were collected using a structured questionnaire (Supplementary Material 1), which was administered among randomly selected households.
Data was collected using KoBoToolBox (mobile phone data collection tool); this involved entering the survey questions onto the platform. In each county the  All participants were informed of the objectives of the study and were given the choice to opt in or out. Those who agreed to be interviewed or participate in a FGD were asked to read and sign a consent form prior to participation.

Data Analyses
Quantitative data were downloaded from KoBoToolbox, and analysed using pivot tables and descriptive statistics in Excel. For the qualitative data (FGDs and KIIs), key themes/issues were identified (

Household Survey (Quantitative Data)
The majority of household survey respondents were smallholder farmers (81.5%), of those 92.7% reported that they reared donkeys as part of their livestock. The median size of the respondent's household was five (range 1 -11), and  Table 3. Description of themes used for analyses of transcripts from the FGDs and KIIs.

Theme Description
Food security Contribution of donkeys to food production, including income generation used to purchase food.

Poverty
Effect of sale/loss of donkey on poverty.
Education Indirect contribution of donkeys to education, including the sale of donkeys to pay school fees.

Gender
Ownership and use of donkeys among men and women.

Trade in donkeys
Factors which influence small holder farmer's decision to participate in the donkey hide trade.

Awareness of donkey hide trade
Level of awareness of the donkey hide trade and general opinion on the trade.

Insecurity
Relationships between donkey hide trade and income security.
Elderly and vulnerable Effects of the loss/sale of donkeys on elderly and vulnerable groups.

Income
Contribution of donkeys to income generation.

FGDs and KIIs (Qualitative Data)
Most of the FGD participants were farmers (65.6%), followed by those who work in transport (8%) and business (6.7%).

Awareness, Demand and Participation in the Donkey Hide Trade
The majority of FGD participants (60.7%, n = 136) and KII participants (92%, n = 34) were aware of the donkey hide trade. All FGD participants reported that they had the freedom to participate in the donkey hide trade with no restriction    "Generally community members do not have adequate knowledge on donkey trade. As for me I sell it alone, because there is a fixed market price and sometimes I sell at a loss because traders give various reasons to lower my asking price, which I end up accepting because of the pressing needs", Kirinyaga resident, FGD 2.

Effects of the Donkey Hide Trade on Food Security and Livelihoods
Responses from the FGDs (67.4%, n = 151) indicated that after the loss/sale of donkeys a noticeable reduction in available food to households had been noticed. This was attributed to a reduction in income that was originally generated from commercial activities involving the use of donkeys. Likewise 45.9% (n = 17) of KII participants believed that food security had been compromised. In addition, a reduction in available donkeys meant that households were unable to undertake farming activities such as ploughing with ease, further contributing to food insecurity. As a result some participants reported that a lack of food had driven them to sell their donkeys to generate cash to purchase food. In contrast a small number of FGD participants reported that there was plenty of food in their communities and that the donkey hide trade had not had an effect.
"In this community there are times when there is not enough food at home and my family members sometimes skip meals. Donkeys become handy because someone can use their labour for commercial activities to make money to buy food. So when they are sold, the households are greatly affected since they lose a donkey which they depend on for income generating activities and hence become food insecure". Kitui Resident, FGD 3.
As a result of the loss of donkeys some FGD participants stated that they have had to use expensive substitutes such as motorbikes or have had to carry water and firewood themselves, causing back and related health problems for some women.
Prior to the reduction in donkeys due to sale/theft most of the households reported that they generated extra income by hiring out their donkeys to transport farm produce, water and firewood. However, following the loss of their donkeys many have been forced to hire transport to take their produce to the market, which has resulted in a loss of income. In contrast some FGD participants felt like their lives had improved after selling their donkeys as they were able to use the earnings to buy motorbikes to be used as boda boda (motor cycle taxi).
People with disabilities (term referring to problems such as impairment, activity limitation or participation restrictions that indicate negative aspects of functioning) and the elderly in the community where reported to be effected financially and by having reduced mobility as a result of the loss/sale of donkeys.
Households reported that elderly and vulnerable people are becoming increasingly dependent on relatives to provide them with food and other necessitates. "My children can never miss education if I have donkeys. I will just sell one and take my children to school. Therefore, education is influenced positively by donkey trade", Narok resident, FGD 4.
Women use donkeys to transport water, farm produce and goods from the market, it was reported by 54.5% (n = 122) of FGD participants and a small percentage of KII participants (10.8%, n = 4) that loss of donkeys as retracted progress back for women who depend heavily on donkeys for their livelihoods.

Discussion
We provide an initial insight into the role of donkeys in the livelihoods of small holder farmers in Kenya, and the potential effects of the donkey hide trade. Our study demonstrates that small holder farmers do rely on donkeys for both domestic chores and commercial activities. Furthermore, a large proportion of household survey participants interviewed indicated that as a result of the donkey hide trade their initial income had increased. However, due to the loss of donkeys many were required to spend more money and time on the transportation of farm produce, water and firewood. Qualitative data gained through FGDs and KIIs revealed a deeper understanding of the consequences of the loss/sale of donkeys. With the primary consequence being a lack of available food, which in some instances further contributed to a household's decision to sell their donkeys (for an instance boost in cash). These results suggest that due to the known increased price of donkeys [2] and the reported decrease in the global donkey population [2] [20] it is likely that the trade (including the breeding and selling) of donkeys to meet consumer demand for ejiao is an unsustainable livelihood option long-term for small holder farmers.  [20].

Livelihoods: The Role of Donkeys and Effects of the Donkey Hide Trade
Therefore, the trade in donkey hides is unlikely to be a sustainable livelihood option for smallholder farmers; also the demand for donkey hide products has increased the purchase price of donkeys [2]. In light of this, it's possible that those selling their donkeys may not be able to replace them in the future, thus impacting traditional livelihood strategies which donkeys are integral to.
The effect of donkey loss on household's abilities to carry out their daily activ- Household survey respondents expressed that due to loss of donkeys many (53.4%) were spending an increased amount of money on the transportation of farm produce, water and firewood. Also 43% reported that they were required to spend more time carrying water and firewood. During the FGD's some respondents also described a particular negative effect on women who rely heavily on donkeys to transport water, farm produce and goods. These consequences further support the assumption that long-term the loss of donkeys will presumably be detrimental to small holder farmers livelihoods and well-being (regardless of the short-term gain in income), with a particular burden being faced by women. to all aspects of the trade to protect both people and animals. This is something that international organizations working on advocacy initiatives centred on the donkey hide trade should be working towards.

Limitations and Recommendations
The donkey hide trade is multifaceted, and is driven by the demand from Chinese consumers. The traditional Chinese view is that wildlife is a resource to be exploited and should not necessarily be protected because of its intrinsic value [13]. Previous research has been conducted to understand Chinese consumer's attitudes and perceptions around use of wildlife parts in traditional medicine products [24] [25] [26]. As far as we are aware there are no published studies specifically looking at beliefs and attitudes centered on the consumption of ejiao.
Research aimed at understanding drivers for the demand of ejiao, and the demographics of those who consume it will aid campaigning and educational initiatives aimed at reducing the demand.
Various attempts have been made to try and reduce the impact that the demand for traditional medicine products have on wild animal population numbers [11]. For example, the Chinese government has put 161 wild animal species used in TCM on the Key National Protected Wild Animal List [12]. In addition, research into synthetic alternatives has been conducted [27]. In the case of bear bile scientists have succeeded in chemically synthesizing UDCA (a type of acid in bear bile which gives bear bile its proposed medicinal benefits) [27]. It has been reported that large quantities of synthetic UDCA is consumed in China, Japan and South Korea [27]. Non-governmental organizations and the media play a vital role in reducing the demand for traditional medicine products which use wild animal derivatives by raising public awareness [27]. Similar approaches could be taken to reduce the demand for products derived from donkey hide.
The welfare concerns centred on the breeding, transportation and slaughter of donkeys were not investigated in this study. However, findings from an unpublished paper have reported animal welfare concerns during slaughter, at loading and offloading zones and at holding pens at one of the slaughter houses in Kenya [18]. As is the case for all species reared for the traditional medicine market, the rearing of animals for the purpose of producing traditional medicine products raises a number of ethical concerns. We suggest that more work is done to understand the welfare issues associated with the trade.

Conclusion
Donkey hides have been used for centuries in Traditional Chinese medicine.
However, following similar trends for an increased demand for products made from wildlife derivatives [28], in recent years the demand for donkey hides has escalated. The donkey hide trade is unlikely to be a sustainable livelihood option