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Mortality in southern Ontario red pine plantations: causes, consequences, and management options.

Red pine is a shade intolerant conifer that is among the most extensively planted tree species in southern Ontario. In the 1920s, reforestation programs were initiated to restore idle marginal and waste land to productive use, prevent soil erosion, and conserve water resources. Red pine was an ideal species for these reforestation programs: it thrives on sites too poor for agriculture, it produces high value timber for example for sawlogs, utility poles, and preservative-treated landscape timbers, it grows well in plantations and can provide economic returns to landowners through occasional thinning treatments, and it is resistant to most pests. Over time, these plantations (Figure 1) have become important for providing timber, and for education and recreation opportunities.