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Environmental life cycle modelling of the production and use of lithium-ion batteries utilising novel electrode chemistries in China

The electrification of transport systems is essential for improved city air quality and reduced noise, may also contribute to enhanced energy security and decreased greenhouse gas emissions. The key enabler of the large-scale uptake of electric vehicles (EVs) are improved lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), offering higher mass specific energies, volumetric energy densities, potential differences and energy efficiencies. Most LIBs used in automotive applications combine nickel-cobalt-manganese (NCM) oxide cathodes with graphite (Gr) anodes intercalating lithium ions from organic electrolyte solutions of lithium salts. Two widely reported modifications include increasing the nickel content in cathodes and introducing silicon-graphite (SiGr) composite anodes, enabling increased energy storage capacities. This paper reports on the development of a detailed unit process-based Life Cycle Inventory model, built to assess the production of current and future NCM batteries in China. The definition of the studied product system and LCI model is followed by the introduction of four different battery production scenarios, which were developed to assess the impacts of producing batteries in China, study the introduction of silicon in anodes and examine the effects of two novel cathode chemistries with increased nickel content (NCM622, NCM811). A detailed presentation of the production phase impacts is provided, based on the ReCiPe 1.08 Midpoint characterisation method. The production phase analysis is complemented by the development of a gate-to-gate model, assessing the environmental impact of using a LIB in a passenger vehicle in China.