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Long-Term Exposure to Outdoor Air Pollution and COVID-19 Mortality: an ecological analysis in England

There is an urgent need to examine what individual and environmental risk factors are associated with COVID-19 mortality. This objective of this study is to investigate the association between long term exposure to air pollution and COVID-19 mortality. We conducted a nationwide, ecological study using zero-inflated negative binomial models to estimate the association between long term (2014-2018) small area level exposure to NOx, PM2.5, PM10 and SO2 and COVID-19 mortality rates in England adjusting for socioeconomic factors and infection exposure. We found that all four pollutant concentrations were positively associated with COVID-19 mortality. The increase in mortality risk ratio per inter quarter range increase was for PM2.5:11%, 95%CIs 6%-17%), PM10 (5%; 95%CIs 1%-11%), NOx (11%, 95%CIs 6%- 15%) and SO2 (7%, 95%CIs 3%-11%). Public health intervention may need to protect people who are in highly polluted areas from COVID-19 infections.