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Ethnobotanical study on Daksina constituent plants on Lombok Island, West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia

. Sutraningsih NKA, Sukenti K, Sukiman, Aryanti E. 2019. Ethnobotanical study on Daksina constituent plants on Lombok Island, West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia. Asian J Ethnobiol 2: 48-53. Lombok Island is located between Bali and Sumbawa Island in Lesser Sunda, Indonesia. About 80% of the population is inhabited by the original tribe called Sasak. Another tribe that has a close cultural relationship is Bali, whose a variety of Hinduism traditional rituals both religious and ancestral beliefs. In carrying out a traditional ritual, Balinese required several means to support the ceremony, one of which is daksina . Daksina is a kind of offerings in Hindu ceremonies composed of various types of plants. This research aims to explore the ethnobotanical aspects of plants that compose daksina. The study was conducted in several Balinese-Hindu villages in 5 regions in Lombok Island, i.e., Mataram City, West Lombok Regency, North Lombok Regency, Central Lombok Regency and East Lombok Regency. Field data collection was done through participatory observation, interviews and documentation. Informants were selected based on purposive sampling and snowball sampling methods. Reported Use (RU) and Index of Cultural Significance (ICS) were calculated to obtain the cultural importance value of the species. The result records that 46 plant species of 27 families are utilized in composing daksina that used in 13 traditional ceremonial rituals in Balinese-Hindu communities on Lombok Island. In general, traditional rituals have some valuable ethnobotanical aspects that should be revealed as an effort in preserving natural and cultural resources, and in supporting ecotourism.


INTRODUCTION
Indonesia is a pluralistic society, one of the consequences of such pluralism is that there are a variety of traditional rituals or ceremonies, both religious and ancestral beliefs carried out and preserved by each adherent (Hariyono 2012). Traditional ceremony is a sacred activity carried out from generation to generation which applies in an area. According to, efforts to explore customs and culture are needed to strengthen the community base in protecting their culture (Handyani 2003in Purwanto 1999. However, in line with the development of time and modern culture, ancestral wealth is increasingly abandoned and forgotten. Traditional culture which is alleged to have a lot of environmental wisdom, has experienced tremendous erosion so that most of the present generation no longer knows and cares about the ancestral heritage. Indonesia with various ethnic groups has various wisdom related to plant utilization (Artha et al. 2016). The progress of science and technology is inseparable from the great contribution of local wisdom owned by traditional communities, which for generations have applied it for the survival and development of their culture (Surata et al. 2015).
Ethnobotany is one of the scientific disciplines and is the principle of the community's conception of environmental resources that can be used as a protector of cultural values. Humans with their environment are one entity that can not be separated. Humans can influence and be influenced by the environment. The relationship will describe the level of human knowledge in utilizing and managing plants in the form of garden plants, gardens, fields, or forests that are generally not cultivated (Pramita et al. 2013). The results of ethnobotany studies have the potential to be developed and integrated in various aspects of human life so that they can contribute to the development of science and technology and preservation of local wisdom (Adiputra 2011).
Traditional ceremonies are one element of regional culture and are universal, where each region has its own variety (Rahyuni et al. 2013). They are actions that are bound by certain rules according to customs, which aim to maintain the continuity and harmony between living things and their environment. Traditions in cultural ceremonies continue to be exist, guarded, and passed down from generation to generation (Rohmah et al. 2014). In carrying out a traditional ritual, local people required several facilities to support the implementation of the ceremony. Some parts of plants, such as stems, leaves, flowers, and fruit can be used as a means of ceremony, referred to as upakara, and plants used as a complement of this ceremony are called upakara plants (Yaniasti 2015). There are hundreds of plant species used in various traditional ceremonies in Bali, of which 14.1% are included in the category of rare or protected plants (Mustaid et al. 2004).
One of the facilities in Hinduism traditional ceremonies that are routinely used is daksina. Daksina means Brahma, or Brahmana, which means Sang Hyang Widhi (God) and is composed of various types of plants (Sudarsana 2010).
Most Hindus in Lombok Island always use daksina in traditional rituals at certain times, for example in marriage ceremonies, cutting teeth, and other major holidays. There are various plant species involved in daksina making, but scientific study about them have not been done. Utilization of plants as upakara (offerings) in various traditional ceremonies is basically a reminder for humans to preserve natural resources, which is also indirectly related to the continuity of the implementation of these traditional ceremonies (Darma 2012). This research needs to be done to revealed ethnobotanical aspects related to daksina that could be important data in supporting wise efforts in natural resources preservation and also cultural preservation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted in March-May 2019 in several Balinese-Hindu villages at 5 regions in Lombok Island, i.e., Mataram City, West Lombok Regency, North Lombok Regency, Central Lombok Regency, and East Lombok Regency ( Figure 1) Areas selection were based on the consideration that those areas have Balinese-Hindu communities that routinely use daksina as a means of their religious ceremonies. This was descriptive exploratory research using qualitative and quantitative methods in ethnobotany; data were obtained through direct observation, participatory-observation, interview, documentation, and literature review (Cotton 1996;Martin 2007). Semi-structured and open-ended interviews were directed to informants whose knowledge related to daksina, which was chosen through purposive and snowball sampling methods (Endraswara 2006). Quantification was based on the calculation of Reported Use (RU) and Index of Cultural Significance (ICS) by Turner 1988 (Hoffman and Gallaher 2007). All data was analyzed hollistically related to ethnobotanical data that revealed, such as plant diversity, utilization, social-cultural, and other related aspects.

Role of Daksina on Lombok Island
Daksina in Lombok Island is a means in a Hinduism ceremonial ritual that is composed of various plants that has meaning as linggih (place) for Ida Sang Hyang Widhi (God) who will bless his people ( Figure 2a). A daksina consists of some parts or components that made from plants and other materials, for example canang sari (lotusshaped symbol made from young coconut leaves) ( Figure  2b), bedogan (container made from Cocos nucifera leaves) ( Fig.2c), tapak dara (cross symbol made from C. nucifera leaves), porosan (symbol made from Piper betle leaf), duck eggs wrapped in coconut leaves, gegantusan (symbol made from plant parts wrapped in corn leaves), papeselen (rolled leaves made from five plants species), yarn or cottons, coins, sampyan payasan (triangle symbol made from young coconut leaves), and tadah sukla (square-shaped symbol made from young coconut leaves, filled with beans, bulbs and others).  Based on research and interviews conducted with 45 informants in 5 areas in Lombok Island (Mataram City, West Lombok Regency, North Lombok Regency, Central Lombok Regency, and East Lombok Regency), there are similarities in the ceremonial process and plants species used in preparing daksina to be served in 13 reported uses (RU) or ceremonial rituals. The rituals are ngaben (cremation ceremony), odalan (birthday of a Hindu temple), pawiwahan (marriage ceremony), otonan (traditional birthday ceremony), purnama (full-moon ceremony), ngelungsur tambe (healing ceremony), ngaturang pemangku (preliminary ceremony/ask for permission before main ceremony), mayah munyi (votive paying ceremony), mecaru (praying for the harmony of nature and living things), mepandes (teeth cutting ceremony), ngadegan merajan (ceremony for an establishment of a holy site), melukat (sacred bathing), and mepiuning (ceremony for asking blessing and salvation).

Botanical aspects of daksina
There were 46 species belonging to 27 families used by the local Balinese-Hindu communities in preparing daksina as a means in 13 traditional ceremonies (Table 1).
Based on ICS values calculation, 8 species have the highest value (1220), i.e., C. nucifera, Gossypium herbaceum, P. betle, Oryza sativa, Areca catechu, Codiaeum variegatum, Tagetes erecta, and Pandanus amaryllifolius. This indicates that these species have high intensity of use (i), and have a high priority and preference (e) in the community. The ICS value of a species is also influenced by the fact of reported use (RU), where the more RUs owned by a species, the higher it's ICS value. In this study, the RU for all plant species was relatively similar, because almost all plant species were utilized in almost all of 13 ceremonial types, in all 5 study areas. An exception is Salacca zalacca which is only used in the East Lombok Regency in 12 traditional ceremonies. This causes S. zalacca to have the lowest ICS value, but it is more due to local use preference reasons. In general, the community has no difficulty in providing plant species for arranging daksina because they have cultivated plants used in daksina in the yard or garden around their house. This is a kind of implementation of knowledge that is understood by the community that the sustainable use of plant resources in daily life will depend on how they manage and preserve it. The community's knowledge not only informs the use of biodiversity but also reflects the life experiences and lifestyles of local communities with the norms contained therein (Tupan 2011).
Table 1 also shows that plant species used in daksina are dominated by Poaceae, Arecaceae, and Zingiberaceae. Besides being widely cultivated in community yards, plants in these families are easily found growing in the surrounding forests and are also traded on the local market. The most widely used plant part is leaves and fruit. Apart from being a constituent of daksina, leaves are also widely used as ingredients for daksina containers.

Socio-cultural aspects of daksina and community conservation efforts
Daksina plays an important role because it is always used in various traditional rituals that must be carried out routinely and continuously. Ritual is a kind of mechanism for maintaining ecological balance in local environment and/or for redistributing food (Mintz and Du Bois 2012). Most Hindus in Lombok Island learn how to make daksina from generation to generation from their parents. In some places like Mataram City, the composition of daksina has begun to change due to the limitations of plant species because it is hard to find, for example, the pisang keladi (taro banana). In today's life, most people start replacing them with other varieties of bananas, such as pisang ketip (other varieties of Musa paradisiaca). This indicates that efforts are needed to maintain the preservation of certain species, especially those that play an important role in the routine activities of the community.
Some species of plants are prohibited from being used as a component of making daksina based on myths believed by local people. An example is the pisang kepok (M. paradisiaca var. Kepok), which is believed to being produced from the milk of Dewi Durga. Goddess Durga in Hinduism is dualistic with seemingly conflicting characters. But if this is seen from the aesthetic aspect, M. paradisiaca var. Kepok has a large box-like fruit shape so that it does not look good enough when arranged in a means container. This causes M. paradisiaca var. Kepok has never been used in making ceremonial facilities such as daksina.
Regarding the use of daksina, the community has conservation efforts aimed at preserving and preserving the surrounding environment. Communities in Sekotong Barat sub-district (West Lombok Regency) replanted C. nucifera that had been used in daksina in their yard. This more or less affects the availability of coconuts in the region which according to the community is very sufficient for the purpose of making daksina. Meanwhile, most of the Hindu community in Bayan, Gangga, Tanjung and Kayangan (North Lombok District) regions have gardens to grow various plants to compose daksina, especially coconuts and fruits. In addition to fulfilling the personal needs of making daksina, this garden is also used to complement the needs of Hindus fellows, and is also to be sold to supplement family income, for examples are coconut leaves (C. nucifera L) and palm leaves (Arenga pinnata L). Another tradition is to bury daksina that has been used under a tree. In addition to respecting the sacred value of daksina, biologically this can contribute to the fertility of the surrounding soil because it can act as an organic fertilizer. Compost or organic fertilizer made from leaves accelerates the decomposition process in the soil so that it can increase soil fertility (Sulistyorini 2005). These actions and behaviors of the community show that the community not only utilizes plants for their daily needs but also takes responsibility in protecting the environment so that the availability of plants is well maintained. The use of plants in daksina actually aims to instill the value of preserving nature for the welfare of nature and all humanity. Local wisdom with all the socio-cultural norms and values contained therein is actually a way for humans to balance the carrying capacity of the environment, lifestyle, and their needs.

Preservation and development of the Daksina tradition as a support for Ecotourism
Ethnobotany tradition can be interpreted as the activity of plant utilization which is carried out for generations and maintained by a traditional community since ancient times. The tradition is created from a combination of the social culture of the community with the plant's diversity in each region. Each tribe in an area has a unique plant utilization system and is different from other regions. Therefore, diversity of plant species is an important key in the ethnobotany tradition (Setyowati and Wardah 2007).
Ecotourism is defined as tourism activities that prioritize the principle of nature conservation, that are able to provide economic benefits, increase the empowerment of local communities, and maintain the integrity of the local culture (Sastrayuda 2010). In its development, ecotourism is widely accepted by the global community and is increasingly perspective, because ecotourism not only sells attractions but also offers local philosophy or culture. Bali tribe has a huge variety of cultures as stated in their traditional ceremonies. Most of the Balinese in the Hindu community uphold the traditional ritual culture so that in each ritual ceremony they always use plants that are believed to be able to connect humans with God. This belief teaches that humans must treat nature, plants, water, and animals like a human beings. Daksina as an offering at Balinese tribal ceremonies has the potential to be used as means for developing ecotourism, especially in terms of plant utilization and preservation, as well as cultural preservation.
The Balinese ethnobotany tradition in using daksina is a form of harmonious human interaction with plant diversity. Through the development of the concept of ethnobotany ecotourism, the ethnobotany tradition which was previously a routine in meeting daily needs, can become an activity that has benefits, both economically, socially and environmentally. Ethnobotany tradition as one of important parts of ecotourism has principles that are inseparable from conservation efforts, empowering local communities, potentially providing economic benefits for local communities, and encouraging high appreciation of indigenous cultures. The ethnobotany tradition of the local community is a native culture that is distinctive so that it is expected to be a competitive service product because it has a high originality and specificity value (Ramadhan et al. 2017).
Regarding the use of daksina, ethnobotany ecotourism will be able to encourage the preservation of the plants diversity that composes daksina. In the concept of ethnobotany ecotourism, the availability of plant diversity in a sustainable manner is a requirement for the continuation of the tradition. In addition, the ethnobotany tradition also creates a sense of concern for local people towards the preservation of natural resources, including in the forest environment. This is because many plant species used in daksina grow naturally in the forest, for example Borassus flabellifer L. and A. pinnata (Wurmb) Merr. on spiritual tourism. Tourists will enjoy religious places that provide a sense of peace and spiritual satisfaction (Aggarwal 2008). This is what distinguishes spiritual tourism from other types of tourism. One of the potential tourist attractions in the development and preservation of the daksina tradition is sacred bathing ritual at Suranadi spring, Suranadi Village, West Lombok Regency ( Figure  3). In this area, tourists can enjoy the sacred bathing which is believed to clean themselves physically and spiritually. In this ritual, the tourist is required to use one of the ritual facilities, one of them is daksina. This causes daksina to be sold around the bathing location by the local community and used as an income source. Besides, tourists are also presented with natural and clean forest conditions, which still store high biodiversity. Forest areas in this area are also widely planted with daksina constituent plants by local communities, for example Allamanda cathartica L., A. catechu L, C. nucifera L, S. zalacca (Gaertn.) Voss, Garcinia mangostana L., C. variegatum (L. ) Clump. ex A.Juss., Durio zibethinus L., Lansium domesticum Corrêa, Nephelium lappaceum L., and Manilkara zapota (L.) P.

Royen.
Another thing that has the potential to be a tourist attraction in this area is the activity of making daksina by the sellers and craftsmen, from the preparation process, the selection of materials and plants, the arrangement, and its use in sacred bath rituals in the area. The tourists will not only benefit from spiritual tourism but also additional knowledge related to biodiversity and culture. In general, the preservation of the use of daksina traditions will be able to contribute to the preservation of biodiversity and preservation of traditional culture. Based on all ethnobotanical aspects revealed in this study, it can be concluded that Daksina not only stores information on the diversity of plant species and the richness of Indonesia's traditional culture but also information about local wisdom of the community in managing natural resources and environment in order to remain preserved and sustainable.