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National and Global Identity Perspectives of Textbooks: Towards a Sense of Global Identity

Textbooks can change, shape, and affect the formation of identity of those who learn the target language rather than teaching the language. In this study, the textbooks determined by the Ministry of National Education and used for English lessons in public high schools were analyzed with the content analysis method in terms of national identity and global identity elements. The study included textbooks and workbooks used in state high schools’ all grades. The data show that the books used as a textbook in public high schools, except 10th grade contain global identity elements more than national identity elements. Another important finding is that the 10th grade English textbook includes elements of national identity more than global identity elements. The results of the current study show that the textbooks prepare language learners for a global identity but also help them create a national identity in state high school, Turkey.


INTODUCTION
The concept of identity does not emerge as one concept and when attempted to be defined, it can be considered as a social concept with various sub-elements (Meihami & Salite, 2019). It is possible to come across many definitions of identity in the related literature. One of these definitions was made by Norton, and Norton (2013) defined identity as a way that the individual tries to perceive himself. When a definition and identification of identity is made over the notion of nation, national identity's definition is made. The basic elements of the national identity consist of five elements; "1-) A historical land/country, or country 2-) Common myths and historical memory 3-) A common mass public culture, 4-) common legal rights and duties for all members of the society 5-) a common economy in which members of the community have the freedom to move over the country" (Smith, 2014, pp. 31-32). Besides, how the national culture that constitutes the national identity will be determined by political principles (Viroli, 1997). Besides, it is symbolized by symbols such as national identity, national flag, and national anthem. National symbols are used very effectively especially in formal education (Berting, 2012). Moreover, other important factors in national Published by Australian International Academic Centre PTY.LTD. Copyright (c) the author(s). This is an open access article under CC BY license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.11n. 5-p.55 identity are the consciousness of history and national languages (Tosh, 2011).
On the other hand, the global identity is the individual's feeling of belonging to the world rather than a nation. The individual develops a bond against the events, geographies, and cultures in the world. Hence the global identity is highly related with global citizenship because of individual's responsibility towards all humanity in the World, individual appreciation (appreciation) and interest towards others (Arnett, 2002;Brock and Brighouse, 2005;Jeffres, Atkin, Bracken, & Neuendorf, 2004;Punchev to -Michelotti, Hudson, & Michelotti, 2018). However, while the 'other' of national identity is clear, the 'other' of global identity is not as clear as national identity's (Şimşek, & Ilgaz, 2007). It can be said that, in a nutshell, global identity is the individual's having the feelings and thoughts of national identity to the world scale. The situation spontaneously causes discussions between national identity and global identity. It is necessary to understand the globalization process to grasp the concept of global identity accurately.
Globalization is a process that can be seen in economic, cultural, social, political, law, etc. areas. (Şimşek, and Ilgaz, 2007). The political dimension, which includes universal discourses, is mostly based on human rights and liberal democracies. Similarly, the economic dimension includes multinational capital and a free market economy. The cultural dimension aims at the harmonious co-existence of different cultural identities (Akdemir, 2004). The cultural dimension is the most controversial element among other dimensions. Since, globalization in the cultural context means multiculturalism. There is creating local identities and cultures by putting aside world culture or national culture in the cultural dimension of globalization. The actual debate begins at this point because it is asserted that global actors promote minority rights and minority cultures. National states or nationalists are mostly worried about leaving national culture aside in the cultural dimension of globalization. In such a situation, local identities and inhomogeneous cultures are created instead of national cultures. In such cases, it is thought that national identities and the existence of national states are in danger. However, some claim the opposite by stating that globalization will be strengthened national identity and national states (Şimşek, & Ilgaz, 2007). On the other hand, it is mentioned that national identities are influenced by English, which is a global language in the postcolonial context (Pavlenko, & Norton, 2007). However, this does not mean that national identities are created entirely by external factors or they are the result of modernism. The level of influence differs according to the historical dynamics of each nation.
Aside from the national identity and global identity conflict discussed above, the spread of discourse on human rights and democracy, intercultural interaction, the emergence of global consumption models, the spread of information services, international sports events, ecological crises such as global warming threatening the planet, transportation technologies, the world political and economic formations (such as the EU, G-8, UN, IMF and Shanghai Community), health problems that can easily spread all over the world (such as AIDS, Ebola, Sars, and Avian influenza), (İçen, & Akpınar, 2012), and currently the Covid-19 pandemic, which has influenced the World. All these factors have brought globalization and global identity to the agenda more than ever.
On the other hand, English language education provides a range of possibilities to understand globalization's contents and to recognize different cultures. When the context of teaching and learning foreign languages is examined, its' multidimensional process is grasped (Stanson, 2006). The language learning process is a whole of learning and teaching activities that include cultural aspects as well as students' own identities, beliefs, motivations, and attitudes. In this context, the evaluation of identity in terms of national identity and global identity is of great importance. The current study is unique in terms of two issues which are English language education and its relation to national and global identity have not been investigated before in Turkey and related literature has a big gap about the issue. For this reason, the present research investigates national identity and global identity terms in the context of textbooks. The main problem statement and sub-problems of the study were formed as follows:

Basic Problem Statement:
To what extent do high school English textbooks promote national and global identity? Subproblems: 1) What is the distribution level of written and visual contents related to national and global identity in high school English preparatory class textbooks? 2) What is the distribution level of written and visual contents related to national and global identity in 9th grade English textbooks in high school? 3) What is the distribution level of written and visual contents related to national and global identity in high school 10th grade English textbooks? 4) What is the distribution level of written and visual contents related to national and global identity in high school 11th grade English textbooks? 5) What is the distribution level of written and visual contents related to national and global identity in high school 12th grade English textbooks? 6) What is the distribution level of written and visual contents related to national and global identity in all English textbooks in the study universe?

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The world undergoes many changes in terms of cultural, economic, and technological areas with globalization, and these changes continue significantly. It is also possible to see the effects of globalization in education (Saenz, 2012). Education serves other purposes as well rather than improving students' cognitive skills nowadays. It is expected from education that it should contribute to the values, attitudes, and affective skills of learners in a globalizing world. Besides, education should create a more peaceful world by supporting international cooperation and social development (Unesco, 2014). Based on the fact that language is the most important element of communication and English is the world language, its place and importance in globalization is an indisputable fact. For this reason, foreign language education should develop intercultural awareness. Della Chiesa (2012, p.455) says that "cross-cultural awareness and understanding [of children, leading to] tolerance (and beyond, respect, if not more) toward others, [and] certainly contribute to the development of empathy, [which is similar to ethics in that] they are both concerned with how we feel about and treat others ". In this context, foreign language education is expected to improve the global identity of language learners. Global identity is described as a consciousness of an international society or global community transcending national boundaries, without necessarily negating the importance of state, nation, or domestic society (Shinohara, 2004). Global citizenship items are as follows; • Attitude accompanied by an awareness of various layers of identity and the capacity for a mutual identity that transcends political, social, racial, or other distinctions such as a sense of shared purpose, tolerance for diversity. • A profound awareness of world problems and common principles such as justice, freedom, fairness, and rev-erence (e.g. understanding of the globalization process, interdependence/interconnectedness, global challenges that nation-states can not effectively or uniquely solve, sustainability as the central theme of the future); • Cognitive ability to think objectively, strategically and creatively, through the implementation of a multi-perspective approach that considers multiple aspects, viewpoints and angles of problems (e.g., multi-perspective strategy focused on rationale and problem-solving skills); • Non-cognitive abilities, including relational abilities such as empathy and crisis management, and organizational skills and networking and engagement skills with individuals with diverse identities, perspectives, cultures, and experiences (e.g. universal empathy, solidarity); • Behavioral ability to work collaboratively and professionally to identify common solutions to global problems and to aim for greater benefit (e.g. sense of purpose, decision-making abilities). (Unesco, 2014) The number of studies examining English textbooks in terms of global identity is quite limited. However, some research on the subject is remarkable. For example, Khajavi, & Abbasian (2011) evaluated ELT textbooks taught in Iran in terms of national and global identity. In the research, it was determined that the textbooks were not suitable for global trends. Another study, Gunel, & Wrestler (2015) researched textbooks that are used between 2012 and 2014 years. The book's name is "Citizenship and Democracy Education" and published in 2010. Additionally, they examined "Citizenship and Democracy Education' curricula in terms of global education. The results of the research indicate that the mentioned textbook and curriculum did not significantly emphasize some of the values and skills related to global education.
Another research conducted on social studies teachers in Turkey showed teachers' negative thoughts about global education (Ozturk, & Gunel, 2016). However, another study included 15 teachers from Turkey revealed that they have positive attitudes and opinions about global citizenship (Pitman, Kabapınar, & Ozturk, 2019). Another study included both social studies teachers from the US and Turkey and the results of the study showed the participants from the US had more positive attitudes about global citizenship than the Turkish participants (Altıkulaç, & Sculptor, 2019). Another research was conducted in Pakistan (Muhammad, Masoos, & Anis, 2019) about global identity, curricular reform, and textbooks. In this research, the researchers aimed to investigate language teachers' attitudes and opinions about textbooks' content in terms of global identity, The results of the study showed that textbooks discussed global issues at a very low level. Surprisingly, the participants were not concerned about the global issues and they mentioned national issues should have been presented in textbooks. Another research was carried out by Wang (2016) in China. The researcher aimed at examining discourse critically in textbooks. The results of the study indicated that the frequency of referring to "nation" about China far exceeded that of other countries, indicating that aspects of Chinese national identity may be emphasized. Moreover, the content analysis revealed five major aspects of national identity in the textbook, forming part of the social and cultural knowledge that only native speakers could be expected to have. In another study, Ukita (2019) emphasized that English language education should nurture universal values. Similarly, Du, & Li (2014) state that English language teaching and learning will contribute to national identity and universal values.

METHODOLOGY
This research is qualitative. In the research, documentary research design, one of the qualitative research patterns, was used. In qualitative research, written and visual materials can be used when direct observation and interviewing are not possible. In this context, document research can be used as a model. In the research, a document research model was used to find answers to the research questions (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2013).

The Universe of the Research
The current study as document research was conducted on the textbooks, approved by the Ministry of Education, used at state high schools between the years 2018-2020, Turkey. There are five high school textbooks taught at the high school level in Turkey. These are high school preparatory class, 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th grade textbooks (MEB, 2019a;MEB, 2019b;Karatas, 2018;MEB, 2019c andMEB, 2019d). All the textbooks mentioned were included in the research without any sampling. Only for the 11th grade textbook, the book published by the Ministry of Education publications was preferred from two textbooks. The formal features of the books are as follows:

Data Collection and Analysis
The coding was done by two field experts to ensure the reliability of the content analysis. The codings are 84% compatible. It is considered sufficient if the code compliance rate is 70% and above. The finding obtained shows that the rapport between the raters was high in the study in question (Miles & Huberman, 2015;Muijs, 2004). Some codes are not included in the research due to non-compatibility. Also, it was decided to combine some codes. The results obtained are shown in frequency (f) and percentage (%).

FINDINGS
The following table presents the distribution of written and visual contents related to national and global identity perspectives in high school preparatory class textbooks: Table 1 shows that the English textbook of high school preparatory class contains mostly written and visual elements related to global identity with a rate of 66% (f = 184). On the other hand, 34% percent (f = 95) written and visual contents related to national identity were included in the textbook. The "global popular people" are the most common element in the global identity dimension with a rate of 30% (f = 56). On the other hand, it is the "national history awareness" category with a rate of 29% (f = 28), which has the most common element in the national identity dimension. Sample images and texts containing elements of national identity and global identity in the English preparatory class textbooks are shared in Figure 1.
As can be seen in Figure 1, the news was shared about the assassination attempt against USA president John F. Kenndy that the news is about World history. Another example of the global identity dimension is the presentation of information about the social networking site established by Mark Elliot Zuckerberg. As an example of the national identity dimension, information about Mevlana Celaleddin-i Rumi, which is an important symbol of Turkish Sufi life, and Ayşe Begüm Onbaşı, who won the gold medal in the World and European championships as a national popular personality, were shared. The following table presents the distribution of written and visual contents related to national and global identity in the 9th grade English textbook: Table 2 shows that the English textbook of high school 9th grade contains mostly written and visual elements related to global identity with a rate of 73% (f = 72). On the other hand, with a 27% percent (f = 26) written and visual contents related to national identity were included in the textbook.
The "Global Symbols, Structures, and Institutions" is the most common element in the global identity dimension with a rate of 32% (f = 23). On the other hand, it is the "national history awareness" category with a rate of 38% (f = 10), which has the most common element in the national identity dimension. Sample images and texts containing elements of national identity and global identity in 9th grade English textbooks are shared in Figure 2.
As can be seen in Figure 2, information on Mesopotamian civilization is shared in the textbook that is related to world history sub-theme of the global identity dimension. Information on Michael Jordan, Norah Jones, and Emma Watson was presented under the subtheme ' Global popular people' in the Global identity dimension. Similar to this subtheme sample, information about Turkish physicist Canan Dağdeviren was shared under the 'national popular personality' sub-theme of the national identity dimension that she has achieved great success in her field of expertise. In the table below, themes related to national and global identity in the high school 10th grade English textbook are presented as frequency and percentage rates. Table 3 shows that the English textbook of high school 10th grade contains mostly written and visual elements related to national identity with a rate of 57% (f = 58). On the other hand, 43% percent (f = 43) written and visual contents related to global identity were included in the textbook. The "Global Culture / Life in Other Countries" is the most common element in the global identity dimension with a rate of 47% (f = 20). On the other hand, it is the "Folkloric Items" category with a rate of 43% (f = 25), which has the most common element in the national identity dimension. Sample images and texts containing elements of national identity and global identity in 10th grade English textbooks are shared in Figure 3.
In Figure 3, visuals in the category of "National Leaders / Heroes and Historical Figures" in the national identity   dimension are presented. Figure 3 shows the important ancient/old figures of Turkish cultural life; Dede Korkut, Nasreddin Hodja, and Köroğlu. In the table below, themes related to national identity and global identity in the 11th grade English textbook are presented in detail. Table 4 shows the distribution of national and global identity items in the 11th grade English textbook. It is understood from the data that high school 11th grade English textbook contains mostly global identity items with 59% (f = 85). On the other hand, 41% percent (f = 60) written and visual contents related to national identity were included in the textbook. The "Universal values-Intercultural interaction" is the most common element in the global identity dimension with a rate of 24% (f = 20). On the other hand, it is the "National Symbols, Structures, and Institutions" category with a rate of 52% (f = 31), which has the most common element in the national identity dimension. Sample images and texts containing elements of national identity and global identity in 11th grade English textbooks are shared in Figure 4.  In Figure 4, visuals in the category of "Universal values-Intercultural interaction" in the national identity dimension are presented. In the example, an Australian's experience of Turkish breakfast was shared with the students. In the table below, themes related to national identity and global identity in the 12th grade English textbook are presented in detail. Table 5 shows the distribution of national and global identity items in the 12th grade English textbook. It is understood from the data that high school 11th grade English textbook contains mostly global identity items with 82% (f = 31). On the other hand, with an 18% percent (f = 7) written and visual contents related to national identity were included in the textbook. The "Universal values-Intercultural interaction" is the most common element in the global identity dimension with a rate of 74% (f = 23). On the other hand, it is the "National Symbols, Structures, and Institutions" category with a rate of 57% (f = 4), which has the most common element in the national identity dimension. Sample images and texts containing elements of national identity and global identity in 12th grade English textbooks are shared in Figure 5. Figure 5 presents an example of the "Universal values-Intercultural interaction" sub-category of global identity. In this example, universal values such as equality, respect, and anti-racism are shared in the 12th grade English textbook. Total national and global identity rates for all English textbooks included in the research is as follow; Figure 6 shows the total national and global identity rates of all English textbooks included in the current research. All the English textbooks in the study universe have 63% (f = 415) written and visual elements of global identity. On the other hand, the ratio of written and visual elements related to national identity in all textbooks was found 37% (f = 246).

DISCUSSION, EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS, AND CONCLUSION
In the current study, English textbooks used in public high school were examined with the content analysis method in terms of national and global identity perspectives. The findings of the preparatory class, 9th grade, 10th grade, 11th grade, and 12th grade textbooks are presented with examples above. In line with the findings, preparatory class textbooks, 9th grade textbooks, 11th grade textbooks, and 12th grade textbooks mainly provide global identity elements both as visual and text. On the other hand, 10th grade textbooks contain elements related to national identity more than elements related to global identity. The author's board and book editor(s) of the analyzed textbooks differ. An important result obtained from the findings is that students who learn a foreign language are introduced to a global culture rather than exposing them to the culture of the target language (American, English Culture, etc.). As stated in the term cultural awareness, which is one of the preliminary elements of intercultural communicative competence, the individual who learns a foreign language recognizes his own culture, accepts the existence of other cultures and accepts the difference in those cultures as they are, does not try to change or refuses the existence of the difference (Camilleri, 1998;Fenner, & Newby, 2000) is important. Books currently being taught in public high schools have rich content in this context. Besides, it was found in the current research that global identity elements are much more than national identity elements in all textbooks. The result can be related to the nature of foreign language education. Thus, foreign language education is more open to global identity elements than other courses. Whether it is conscious or unconscious, global identity elements are inherent in foreign language education. Since foreign language has an important role in intercultural communication. In addition, intercultural awareness (IA) is one of the important phenomena in effective communication (Baker, 2012). Finally, like globalization, English is globalizing and is called World English (Quirk, 1985;Kachru, 1985).
Another factor is thought to be following an open policy to global trends in textbook writing. Similar studies showed that textbooks taught in Iran are not open to global trends (Khajavi, & Abbasian, 2011). This difference is considered to be related to the political trends of the countries. While the Iranian political regime has not an open policy towards western culture, Turkey has quite the opposite attitude about the issue. Besides, after 1945 Turkey has been collaborating with international institutions such as UNESCO, the Council of Europe and the Georg Eckert International School Books and participated in the research, which is on textbooks, of these institutions (Otto et al, 1969;Dance, 1971;Özbaran, 2003) On the other hand, in research conducted with teachers who work in Turkey, it was found that participants are all sensitive about world problems such as covid19 or global warming and they think that everybody has the responsibility to solve those problems. In addition, teachers emphasized that it is necessary to communicate with people from different cultures and world solidarity with no discrimination (Çolak, Kabapınar, & Öztürk, 2019). However, some studies on teachers also showed that teachers have negative thoughts about global education (Öztürk, & Günel, 2016). In similar research conducted in Turkey, it was found that Turkish teachers were less keen on global citizenship in comparison to the teachers of the United States (Altıkulaç, & Sculptor, 2019).
Studies on teachers in Turkey show global identity is not internalized at a high level. This result is not largely in line with the findings of the current research. However, it does not present the opposite case. As a matter of fact, the attitudes of individuals and societies do not change in a short time. On the other hand, the findings obtained in the research are in line with the idea that English language education should improve universal values in the context of global identity (Ukita, 2019). However, English textbooks in Turkey combine universal values such as respect for others, empathy, and openness towards diversity, etc. with national values. It was found by Günel & Pehlivan (2015) that the book "Citizenship and Democracy Education" textbook and "Citizenship and Democracy Education Curriculum" do not emphasize universal values enough. Similar deficiencies were also expressed in terms of social studies education in the early 2010s (İçen, & Akpınar, 2012). This difference can be explained by the improvement in global education in textbooks after 2013. In addition, English language education is a more suitable course for global education than social studies education.
It is clear that there is an awareness about the global identity both in education and other fields in Turkey. On the other hand, the current research shows that English textbooks promote values in the context of both global identity and national identity dimensions. On the other hand, this result is in line with the expectations of Du, & Li (2014). Thus, UNESCO sees global citizenship education as an opportunity to develop national identities (UNESCO, 2013).
Finally, in all textbooks, elements of "national history awareness" and "national symbols, structures, and institutions" are included in the dimension of national identity. This result can be explained by the fact that the basic elements of building national identities are history and language (Tosh, 2011). In the global identity dimension, the most emphasized elements are "universal values" and "intercultural interaction". This result can be explained both by the nature of the course and the fact is that English the most used language in intercultural communication (Baker, 2012). In a nutshell, the present research indicates that the textbooks contain necessary visual and written content to foster both national identity and global identity in a balanced way. It is also found that textbooks written by a different author and edited by different editorial boards are sufficient enough to foster global perspectives of language learners. One more significant finding of the research is that teaching material namely textbooks have rich content. The authors of the present research believe that state high school students benefit the rich content to develop their perspectives towards both national and global values.