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9. Therapy for cardiac failure: treatments old and new

Cardiac failure is a common, serious, costly, but treatable, condition. Echocardiography should be considered in every patient with cardiac failure. A search for an underlying primary cause or a secondary aggravating factor is of paramount importance. Standard drug therapy includes an angiotensin‐converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor, a diuretic and digoxin: ß‐blockers should also be considered once the patient's condition is stable. ACE inhibitor therapy continues to be underused or used in inadequate doses. Non‐drug therapy (such as diet, fluid intake, exercise, treatment of sleep apnoea) has an important adjunctive role.