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Individual Values and Work/Non-Work Conflict in Their Relationship to OCB

This study examines the relationship between (1) individual values, (2) work and non-work variables, and (3) organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) and in-role performance. The study sample consisted of 372 teachers employed in 32 secular Jewish schools (the response rate was 60%). Data on OCB and in-role performance were provided by the schools’ principals. The results showed that three out of the four individual values (self-enhancement, self-transcendence, and conservation) were related to the two forms of OCB, altruistic and organizational, but not to in-role performance. The findings also showed a weak relationship between the non-work variables and the outcome variables, and a modest relationship between the work-domain variables and these outcomes. We concluded by suggesting some directions for such research.


Introduction
Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) has become one of the more researched outcomes in the field of organizational behavior and industrial psychology (Ehrhart & Naumann, 2004). The term OCB denotes organizationally beneficial behaviors that can neither be imposed on the basis of formal role obligations nor extracted by a contractual guarantee of compensation; it includes both organizational OCB (OCB-O) (impersonal OCB directed toward the organization in general) and interpersonal OCB (OCB-I) (helping a specific person within the organization) International Journal of Human Resource Studies ISSN 2162-3058 2018 (Organ, Podsakoff, & MacKenzie, 2006). Most research on the determinants of OCB has focused on the work attitudes of subordinates and their relationship with their supervisors, as demonstrated in concepts such as leadership style or commitment. OCB antecedents are usually examined within the theoretical framework of exchange (Carpenter, Berry & Houston, 2014), which is described as taking place primarily at the individual level, between supervisors and their subordinates (Konovsky & Pugh, 1994). Despite the impressive amount of studies on OCB, (LePine, Erez, & Johnson, 2002;Podsakoff, Mackenzie, Paine, & Bacharach, 2000), only a few studies have considered the effect of individual values and the work/non-work interface on OCB.
A small number of studies have examined individual values in the context of work performance and the work and non-work interface (Cohen, 2009;Carlson & Kacmar, 2000;Cohen & Abedallah, 2013;Cohen & Liani, 2009;Promislo, Deckop, Giacalone & Jurkiewicz, 2010). Values play a functional role in work-related processes and outcomes, such as job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and work performance (Cohen, 2007;Cohen & Keren, 2008). They are predictors or moderators of these processes and criteria (Hui, Wong, & Tjosvold, 2007). Furthermore, they have an important role in establishing the fit between the individual and the organization. There is general agreement in the literature that values do not influence people's activity directly, but rather indirectly, through attitudes and goals (Roe & Ester, 1999). It is surprising, however, that only a few studies have examined individual values in their relationship to work performance.
Another important issue that is examined here is the relationship between work and family interface and work outcomes. The question of how to strike a balance between work and life, and more specifically between work and family, is attracting increasing attention among academics and policy makers at both the national and international level (Crompton & Lyonette, 2006). Work-family conflict is a form of inter-role conflict whereby the fulfillment of the role demands emanating from one domain (i.e., work) interferes with fulfilling the role demands in another domain (i.e., home or family) (Kinman & Jones, 2008). Interest in this issue has grown with the increase in dual-career couples and single-parent households and the concomitant decrease in traditional single-income families (Cousins and Tang, 2004), trends that have resulted in increasing numbers of employees struggling to juggle the competing demands of work and family (Byron, 2005). For example, a person has to choose between participating in a weekend project team meeting and a surprise birthday party for a parent (Greenhaus & Powell, 2003). The outcomes of multiple role participation may depend not only on the extent of role demands but also on how well competing demands are managed using coping strategies, namely, the strategies that people use to cope with work and family role demands (Jennings & McDougald, 2007;Ten Brummelhuis & Bakker,2012;Kirchmeyer, 1993;Cohen, 2009). Commonly investigated coping strategies include: segmentation, compensation, and accommodation. (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006). Work-family balance issues affect not only employees' well-being, but also their behaviors at work, s such as absenteeism, job performance, and turnover (Eby, Casper, Lockwood, Bordeaux, & Brinley, 2005). Studies also found that work-family balance is positively related to OCB). For example, Bhargava and Baral (2009) found that family to work enrichment and work to family enrichment were positively related to OCB among Indian managers, and Carlson, Kacmar, Grzywacz, Tepper, and Whitten (2013) found that greater work-family balance was associated with higher supervisor-reported altruistic OCB and organizational OCB.
This study examines individual values, organizational commitment, job involvement, work-family conflict, and coping strategies in relation to in-role performance and OCB, drawing data from a sample of Israeli teachers. This study has the potential to make several contributions. First, it applied the theory of human values (Schwartz, 1992), not commonly used at the individual level in management and industrial psychology, particularly in research on work performance. Hardly any studies examined this theory at the individual level and in relationship to OCB and in-role performance. Second, this research also responds to recent criticism that efforts to explain value differences are too narrow and focus almost exclusively on individualism-collectivism (Francesco & Chen, 2004;Gelfand, Erez, & Aycan, 2007). Third, this study examines the mutual relationship of values and work and non-work variables with OCB and in role performance. Very few studies examined the relationship of individual values as advanced by Schwartz's human values theory with work outcomes when both work and non-work variables are included in the equation. Such an examination enables us to see whether the effect of individual values holds when important situational variables are included in the equation.

Individual Values and Work Outcomes
Schwartz's Individual Values Model Schwartz and Sagiv (1995) defined human values as "…desirable goals, varying in importance, that serve as guiding principles in people's lives. The crucial content aspect that distinguishes these values from one another is the type of motivational goal they express… (pp 93-94)". Schwartz (1992Schwartz ( , 1996 derived a typology of the different content of values by reasoning that values represent, in the form of conscious goals, three universal requirements of human existence: biological needs, the requisites of coordinated social interaction, and the demands of group functioning. Groups and individuals represent these requirements cognitively as specific values about which they communicate. Values occupy a central position in a person's cognitive system, and for this reason values influence our attitudes, decision-making processes, and in general, all human behaviors. Schwartz and Sagiv (1995) derived 10 distinct motivational types of values from the three universal requirements (see Figure 1). The 10 values are: self-direction, stimulation, hedonism, security, conformity, tradition, power, achievement, hedonism, universalism and benevolence. Evidence for this theoretical structure has been found in samples from 67 nations (Schwartz, 1992(Schwartz, , 2005Schwartz & Sagiv, 1995) as well as in recent data from 38 countries (Fontaine, Poortinga, Delbeke, & Schwartz, 2008). The findings provide substantial support for both the content and structure postulates of the theory and specifically for the claim that 10 motivationally distinct value types are recognized across cultures and used to express value priorities. Research examining the 10 values in samples of the Israeli workforce provided findings that support their usefulness in predicting attitudes and behaviors in the Israeli setting (Cohen, 2009;Abd El Majid & Cohen, 2015). ISSN 2162-3058 2018  The research model is presented in Figure 2. Our first hypothesis argues that values representing openness to change are positively related to performance. These valuesnamely, self-direction, hedonism, and stimulationare characterized by independent thinking, creativity, and a willingness to try new things (Schwartz & Sagiv, 1995), all of which are important preconditions of performance. Lipponen, Bardi, and Haapamä ki (2008) studied the extent to which personal values contribute to one type of OCB, making suggestions for improving the organization ("initiative OCB"). The researchers reasoned that initiative OCB is consistent with independence of thought and action (openness to change values), but inconsistent with the motivation to preserve the status-quo (conservation values). They asked employees of day-care centers in Finland to report their personal values. They measured initiative OCB using both self-reports and managers' reports. As hypothesized, both self-and managers' reports revealed that employees who gave high priority to openness to change versus conservation values exhibited more initiative OCB. The effect of these values was stronger among employees who identified strongly with the organization. Therefore, we could expect that, in the current sample, subjects who showed higher levels of values representing openness to change would score higher in in-role performance and OCB-O than those who held conservation values (tradition, conformity, security). The latter emphasize order, self-restriction, preservation of the past, and resistance to change (Schwartz, 2010;Sagiv, Schwartz, & Arieli, 2011) and do not represent important International Journal of Human Resource Studies ISSN 2162-3058 2018 requirements of in-role and extra-role performance. Following the above arguments, we advance the first two hypotheses regarding the relationship between individual values and OCB.

Figure 2. Research model
Hypothesis 1a: There is a positive relationship between values that represent openness to change (self-direction, stimulation, and hedonism) and in-role performance, and OCB-O.
Hypothesis 1b: There is a negative or no relationship between values that represent conservation (tradition, conformity, and security) and in-role performance and OCB-O.
It can be expected that values representing self-transcendence will be related positively to OCB-I and OCB-O. OCB-I involves behaviors aimed at helping the organization as well as other people (whether managers or colleagues) at work and OCB-O involves impersonal actions directed toward helping the organization in general (Podsakoff et al., 2000). This fits with the notion that a person whose values represent self-transcendence is likely to regard the group or collective as being more important than the individual (Schwartz, 1992(Schwartz, , 1996, and therefore will be more likely to demonstrate OCB-I and OCB-O in her/his relationships at work. High self-transcendence values emphasize acceptance of others as equals and concern for their welfare (universalism and benevolence) (Schwartz, 2005). Employees who hold such values will be inclined to help other employees when they can, and will perceive such helping relationships as indicative of the quality of their relationship with the organization. Such employees will have high empathy and tolerance, and will do their best to avoid conflict. Therefore, they will demonstrate higher levels of OCB-I and OCB-O. High self-enhancement values (power, achievement, and hedonism) emphasize the pursuit of one's own relative success and dominance over others. According to Schwartz (2010), people who emphasize International Journal of Human Resource Studies ISSN 2162-3058 2018 self-enhancement experience more personal anxiety that might deplete the resources needed for prosocial behavior. Such people also share a negative outlook on human nature. This suggests negative relations between self-enhancement values and prosocial behavior. According to Schwartz (2010), self-enhancement values legitimize attending to one's own needs and avoiding involvement with others who are needy. The pursuit of dominance over people and accumulation of resources inherent in power values justifies self-serving behavior even at the expense of others. Therefore, it can be expected that such employees will be less motivated to engage in OCB-O and OCB-I.

Affective organizational commitment and job involvement
Affective organizational commitment is defined as "an affective or emotional attachment to the organization such that the strongly committed individual identifies with, is involved in, and enjoys membership in the organization" (Allen & Meyer, 1990, p. 2). Organizational commitment is hypothesized to lead to improved job performance (Meyer, Stanley, Herscovitch, & Topolnytsky, 2002) and has become recognized as being among the more stable and consistent determinants of OCB, judging from the number of studies examining their relationship (Meyer et al., 2002;Rioux & Penner, 2001;Bragger, Rodriguez-Srednicki, Kutcher, Indovino, & Rosner, 2005). Job involvementthat is, the degree to which employees are engaged in and enthusiastic about performing their work (Kanungo, 1982) is likely to follow a similar logic as commitment.
As presented in the research model (see Figure 2), we expect that both organizational commitment and job involvement will be related to improved job performance and OCB (Meyer et al., 2002). One theoretical explanation for this expected pattern follows the exchange approach. As described by Cohen (2015), social exchanges entail unspecified obligations. Employees who experience positive exchanges with the organization will reciprocate with higher levels of commitment, which will motivate them to contribute to the organization in other ways, whether formally (through better performance) or in more spontaneous, informal ways, i.e., through higher levels of OCB (Meyer et al., 2002). As for job involvement, Diefendorff, Brown, Kamin, and Lord (2002) argued that, given the fact that job involvement is thought to be an important determinant of effort and motivation and other job attitudes have been shown to positively relate to OCB, it is anticipated that those scoring high in job involvement will engage in more OCB. Their findings supported this argument.
Another explanation as to why commitment and involvement should be related to performance outcomes stems from the congruence effect advanced by Sagiv and Schwartz (2000). According to their thesis, people are more motivated, satisfied, and committed when International Journal of Human Resource Studies ISSN 2162-3058 2018 their values are congruent with those of the organization or group (Berings et al., 2004). In other words, a good fit between the values and expectations of the organization and those of the employee will be expressed through high levels of commitment and job involvement. Because most organizational cultures strongly emphasize performance, employees whose value system has a better fit with the notion of performance will adjust better to their work environment and will perform better.
Hypothesis 3: Organizational commitment and job involvement are positively related to in-role performance, OCB-I and OCB-O.

Non-Work Domain Variables as Predictors of OCB and In-Role Performance
The work-family conflict Studies have shown that role conflict is the main dilemma of workers (Frone, Russell, & Cooper, 1991;Frone, Yardley, & Markel, 1997). Work and family are the most important role domains in the lives of most individuals. However, the expectations of the roles are not always compatible, and frequently create conflicts between the family and work domains. The conflict develops because employees perform more than one task in each domain. Being a spouse and/or a parent and being an employee or a manager requires a great deal of psychic energy, of which human beings have limited amounts. The theory of conformance to social expectations suggests that the family environment of men and women may have a significant impact on their career success. Despite the widely touted "family friendly" focus of the 1990s, recent research has found some evidence of the potentially detrimental career effects of a family (Almer, Cohen & Single, 2004). Cohen (1999) found that family domain variables were strongly related to voluntary turnover of male and female lawyers. The benefits of engaging in work and family roles may also increase the intrinsic motivation of an individual to go beyond normal role demands at work (Bhargava & Baral, 2009). According to Carlson et al. (2013), favorable environmental circumstances that are persistent and have sufficient force, elicit a broader and structured effect. Positive emotions are best targeted by creating circumstances, events, or environments that are valued by individuals or have personal meaning and significance. Carlson et al. contended that the work-family balance is such a circumstance, because it is a highly desired but rarely an obtained outcome for a substantial proportion of workers. The basic argument is that the work-family balance generates or sustains a level of positive emotion that stimulates outward seeking behaviors, such as OCB. Accumulated over time, the positive emotions that accompany work-family balance and the resulting pattern of broadened outlooks are likely to build cognitive (e.g., skills) and psychological (e.g., mastery) resources that enable regular engagement in OCB. Therefore, individuals who experience work-family balance will engage in citizenship behaviors (Brager et al., 2005).
In general, employees who experience high levels of work-to-family conflict will act to reduce them. One way of reducing the magnitude of this conflict is to invest less effort at work (Brager et al., 2005). This naturally will lead to lower levels of performance and lower levels of any extra work investments such as OCB. ISSN 2162-3058 2018 Hypothesis 4: Work-to-family conflict is associated negatively with in-role performance and OCB.

Coping Strategies
Individuals often rely on their own personal resources and typically fall into preferred behavioral patterns to cope with the work and family conflict (Rotondo & Kincaid, 2008). Successfully coping with multiple domains involves applying good personal organizational skills and developing an appropriate attitude (Rotondo & Kincaid, 2008;Cohen, 2009). Kirchmeyer (1993) found that strategies aimed at altering one's own attitudes as opposed to altering those of others, and increasing one's personal efficiency as opposed to decreasing one's activity level or relying on others, appeared to be the most effective techniques for helping employees cope with a multitude of life domains. Those who throughout their lives develop more successful strategies can cope more effectively with daily and conflicting demands from work and family and devote more time to their career.
The type of personal strategy used to cope with the demands and responsibilities of multiple domains appears to affect the experience of interdomain conflict (Hall, 1972;Kirchmeyer, 1993). In general, successful coping with the work/non-work interface has been associated with higher levels of satisfaction in both domains (Hall, 1972;Kinnier, Katz, & Berry, 1991;Kirchmeyer, 1993). For example, coping strategies such as carefully setting work and non-work priorities, overlapping roles whenever possible, and redefining roles have been associated with low levels of work/non-work conflict, favorable work attitudes, reduced levels of strain, and a low incidence of job withdrawal (Kirchmeyer, 1993;Matsui, Ohsawa, & Onglatco, 1995). The result is likely to be greater psychological attachment to the organization and higher levels of investment in the organization, namely, higher levels of effort, which will result in higher performance and OCB.
Hypothesis 5: Use of personal coping strategies is associated with high in-role performance and high OCB.

Control Variables
While the demographic variables are examined here more as control variables (see Figure 2), we offer justifications for their inclusion based on their expected relationship with the outcome variables. Three demographic variables are examined: marital status, gender, and education. Being married can be an important determinant of performance at work, in that employees who are married must devote more time to family life than those who are not. One would expect that married employees would have less time to devote to extra-role activities, because this time would be invested in their family. Employees who are not married have more time and energy for extra-role activities. Russell and Rush (1987) did find some relationship between marital status and different dimensions of performance and contribution to the organization. In addition, studies show that despite societal changes in traditional gender roles, women still perform more household duties than men do (Karsten, 1994;Ross, 1987). Consistent with this view, we expect that employees who are married and female will have (or will perceive themselves to have) greater responsibilities at home, leading to role International Journal of Human Resource Studies ISSN 2162-3058 2018 conflicts and to lower levels of work performance (Kidder & Parks, 2001).
In several studies, education was examined in its relationship to OCB and in-role performance, in the belief that employees with a higher educational level would perceive their exchange with the organization as more social than calculative. Such employees, who generally occupy the higher ranks in the organization, would more readily acknowledge the importance of the informal support of their co-workers and supervisors. With more financial security, better educated employees can spend more time on social exchange such as OCB. On the other hand, less educated employees would focus on the economic exchange of their workplace. Research findings are not conclusive regarding the relationship between education and OCB: some found a positive relationship (Gregerson, 1993;Smith, Organ & Near, 1983) and some did not (Organ & Konovsky, 1989).

Subjects and Procedure
The population of this study was secular Israeli teachers working in secular Jewish state schools. We focused on this particular group in order to minimize variations that might be caused by including members of other, culturally different, populations, such as Arabs or religious Jews. We distributed questionnaires to 610 teachers in 32 schools (including both elementary and secondary schools) located in Israel; of these, 372 usable questionnaires were returned, a response rate of 60%. The questionnaires included items on individual values, commitment forms, non-work domain variables, and demographic characteristics. The principals of the 32 schools provided data on OCB and in-role performance for those teachers who returned usable questionnaires, in most cases a month or two after the questionnaires were collected. The teachers indicated their national identity numbers on the questionnaires to allow us to match their responses with the principals' evaluations. The questionnaires, which were in Hebrew, took about 15 minutes to complete; no compensation was provided.
The sample can be defined as homogeneous in several respects. Most of the respondents were females (85.2%), married (83.5%), born in Israel (96%), and possessing an academic education (91%). In other respects, the sample is more heterogeneous, as demonstrated in the relatively high standard deviations of the remaining three variables: age (Mean=39.6; SD=10.98), tenure in the school (Mean=9.92; SD=8.2), and tenure in the occupation (Mean=14.3; SD=9.40).

Individual Values
The Portrait Values Questionnaire (PVQ) was applied to measure the 10 basic values (Schwartz, 2005;Schwartz, Melech, Lehmann, Burgess, & Harris, 2001). The PVQ consists of short verbal portraits of 40 different people, gender-matched with the respondent. Each portrait highlights goals and aspirations that point implicitly to the importance of a value. The ISSN 2162-3058 2018 portraits describe each person in terms of what is important to him or her; thus, they capture the person's values without explicitly identifying values as the topic of investigation. The score for the importance of each value is the average rating given to these items (on a 6-point scale), all designated a priori as markers of a value. All the value items have demonstrated near equivalence of meaning across cultures in analyses using multi-dimensional scaling (Schwartz, 2005). Following Schwartz's model, we aggregated the items into the four higher-order value types: conservation (conformity, tradition, and security; 13 items, Cronbach's alpha = .75), self-transcendence (universalism and benevolence; 10 items; Cronbach's alpha = .80), self-enhancement (achievement and power; 7 items; Cronbach's alpha = .77), and openness to change (self-direction, stimulation, and hedonism; 10 items; Cronbach's alpha = .79).

Work Domain Variables
Affective organizational commitment was measured using the eight-item scale developed by Allen and Meyer (1990). It should be noted that the term "the school" or "my school" was used in all organizational commitment items. In addition, two items from the original scale were omitted to increase reliability (Cronbach's alpha = .68). Job involvement (10 items) was measured by the scale developed by Kanungo (1979Kanungo ( , 1982) (Cronbach's alpha = .77).
Non-work domain variables. Work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict were measured by two 5-item scales developed by Netemeyer, Boles, and McMurrian (1996). Higher scores mean more conflict. However, the reliability of the family-to-work conflict scores was very low (below .60) and therefore we decided not to include it in the analysis. A high score in work-to-family conflict indicates that demands related to the household and the family have a negative spillover on performing work duties (Cronbach's alpha = .83). Personal coping was measured using the 16 items of Kirchmeyer's (1993) scale of coping strategies. The items represent common practices utilized to manage multiple domains that were identified in her study of men and women, and involve time management and the reframing of demands (Example items: Concentrate on those activities of nonwork roles that are meaningful to me, and drop the meaningless activities; Arrange with others (such as my kids, other parents, fellow hobbyists) to help with nonwork responsibilities; Increase my efficiency by scheduling and organizing role activities carefully). Three items from this scale were omitted to increase reliability that was below .60 when these items were included. (The deleted items are: Keep roles separate from each other (e.g., keeping work out of family life, choosing community service totally unlike work); Use no conscious strategy to deal with the demands of various roles; Reduce my standards within certain roles (e.g., accepting performance that is "good enough" as opposed to "my best".) We performed exploratory factor analysis (Varimax rotation) on the items of the scale to examine the possibility that this is a multi-dimensional scale. The findings showed one dominant factor (Cronbach's alpha=.68).

Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) and In-Role Performance
The Williams and Anderson (1991) scale, a 21-item list, was applied in this study. The principals of the schools were asked to evaluate each of the teachers in the final sample International Journal of Human Resource Studies ISSN 2162-3058 2018 according to these items. The 21 items represent three dimensions, where 7 items measure in-role performance (Cronbach's alpha=.66), 7 measure OCB-O (impersonal OCB directed toward the organization in general) (Cronbach's alpha=.89), and 7 measure OCB-I (helping a specific person) (Cronbach's alpha=.85).
All the employees' constructs were measured on a 7-point scale (1=strongly disagree to 7=strongly agree). The OCB scale was measured on a scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always).

Data Analysis
As the sample included teachers from 32 different schools, we analyzed the data using Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) (Bryk & Raudenbush, 1992, pp. 84-86). Table 1 presents the basic statistics of the variables and the inter-correlations among them. The results show acceptable reliabilities of the research variables following DeVellis's (1991) criterion of .60 and above. The correlations among the independent variables were in general not high. In only one case was the correlation above .50 (self-enhancement and openness to change, r=.58; P≤.001). These correlations almost preclude the possibility of multicollinearity.

N=364-372
To establish the discriminant validity of the study scales, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) ISSN 2162-3058 2018 was performed (Brooke et al., 1988;Mathieu & Farr, 1991). We first compared the fit of a three-factor model for the three dimensions, OCB (OCB-O and OCB-I) and in-role performance, to the alternative fit of a single, one-factor model. The results for the three-factor model revealed the following fit indices: Χ2=88.35 (DF=24); Χ2/df = 3.68; CFI = .95; IFI = .95; NFI=.94; and RMSEA=.08. In the second model tested, all items were loaded onto a single factor, producing Χ2=550.62 (DF=27); Χ2/df=20.39; CFI=.65; IFI=.66; NFI=.64; and RMSEA=.23. The findings support the superiority of the three-factor model over the one-factor model. To further examine this contention, a chi-square difference test was conducted. The difference in chi-square between two nested models is used to calculate improvement over a competing model. Significant results for the chi-square difference test indicate that the model with a smaller chi-square has a statistically better fit (Milfont & Fischer, 2015). The chi-square difference test indicated that the three-factor model fits significantly better than the one-factor model (Chi-square difference=462.27; D.F.=3; P ≤.001).

International Journal of Human Resource Studies
We also performed CFA for the two commitment scales. We -compared the fit of a two-factor model, including organizational commitment and job involvement, to the alternative fit of a one-factor model. The results for the two-factor model revealed the following fit indices: Χ2=5.72 (DF=8); Χ2/df=5.72; CFI=.89; IFI=.89; NFI=.87; and RMSEA=.11. In the second model, all items were loaded onto a single factor, producing Χ2=101.29 (DF=1); Χ2/df =11.25; CFI=.73; IFI = .74; NFI=.72; and RMSEA=.16. The findings support the superiority of the two-factor model over the one-factor model, although the fit indices for the two-factor solution were not very high. Again, a chi-square difference test indicated that the two-factor model fit was significantly better than the one-factor model fit (Chi-square difference = 55.5; D.F. = 1; P ≤.001).
Finally, we performed CFA for all the independent variables in the study. We compared the fit of an eight-factor model that includes the four individual values and the four work and non-work variables to the alternative fit of a one-factor model. The results for the eight-factor model revealed the following fit indices: Χ2=644.92 (DF=224); Χ2/df = 2.79; CFI=.89; IFI=.90; NFI=.85; and RMSEA=.07. In the second model, all items were loaded onto a single factor, producing Χ2= 2695.20 (DF=252); Χ2/df =10.70; CFI=.39; IFI =.39; NFI=.37; and RMSEA=.16. The findings support the superiority of the eight-factor model over the one-factor model. Again, a chi-square difference test indicated that the eight-factor model fit was significantly better than the one-factor model fit (Chi-square difference=2050.28; D.F.=28; P≤.001). This finding shows that the individual values have convergent and discriminant validity with the other independent variables.
These results are consistent with the absence of common method variance. The findings showed that the sample examined here was able to differentiate between the different scales applied in this study. Table 2 presents the results of the HLM analyses, in which values were regressed on the three outcome variables. Hypothesis 1a expected a positive relationship between values that represent openness to change and in-role performance and OCB. This hypothesis was not International Journal of Human Resource Studies ISSN 2162-3058 2018 supported by the data. Openness to change was not related to any of the outcome variables. Hypothesis 1b expected a negative or no relationship between values that represent conservation and the outcome variables. This hypothesis was supported by the data. Conservation was negatively related to the two forms of OCB, OCB-I and OCB-O, and had no significant relationship with in-role performance.
Hypothesis 2 expected that employees who had higher levels of values that represent self-transcendence would score higher in OCB-I and OCB-O. This hypothesis was supported by the data. Those who were ranked higher on self-transcendence had higher levels of OCB-I and OCB-O, as expected. Also as expected, higher levels of self-enhancement were associated with lower levels of OCB-I and OCB-O.
Hypothesis 3 expected organizational commitment and job involvement to demonstrate a positive relationship with work outcomes. This hypothesis was also partly supported. The positive relationship between job involvement and OCB-I and in-role performance was expected. However, we did not anticipate the negative relationship found between organizational commitment and OCB-I. Hypothesis 4 expected a negative relationship between work-to-family conflict and the outcome variables; this hypothesis was supported for OCB-I. Hypothesis 5 expected a positive relationship between coping strategies and the outcome variables; this was not supported by the data. All three estimates were not significant. 2 not married = 0; married = 1. ISSN 2162-3058 2018 As Table 2 shows, the random variance of the group was significant only for in-role performance. That is, for the two dimensions of OCB, the model that takes random variance of the group into account was better than that assuming that all groups on average perform the same. Finally, the control variables showed only one significant relationship: Education was positively related to OCB-I. This provided very partial support for Hypothesis 6.

Discussion
Not many studies have examined individual values in relation to behavioral outcomes, an unsurprising fact, given that this research direction is quite new (Fischer & Smith, 2006;Lam, Schaubroeck, & Aryee, 2002;Abd El Majid & Cohen, 2015). Some studies have examined the relationship between individual values and commitment (Cohen, 2007;Cohen & Keren, 2008). However, the main contribution of this study is the simultaneous examination of values, commitment foci, and non-work domain variables in their relationship to in-role and extra-role performance. Such an examination has rarely been performed. The findings show that individual values, commitment, and non-work domain variables are concepts that can increase our understanding of employees' behavior in the workplace, particularly their performance. The findings also suggest a number of interesting and important insights that provide ideas and directions for future research, which are elaborated below.
One of the more interesting findings of the current study is the relationship between self-transcendence values and both dimensions of OCB. This finding strongly suggests that OCB is rooted in personality and that employees who are more willing to help the organization and its members in the workplace are likely to be those who value the group and the collective over the individual. This finding suggests that the use of situational variables as the predominant explanation for employees' performance of OCB may need to be reconsidered, and greater attention paid in future to the role of individual differences (Alexandra Beauregard, 2012). The fact that we found no relationship between any of the values studied here and in-role performance suggests that individual differences might be an important factor in shaping both the magnitude and the type of OCB. In-role performance seems to be related to a set of values that is entirely different from OCB.
In the current study, the pattern of the relationship between individual values and OCB is interesting. For example, while we anticipated that the relationships between individual values and the two dimensions of OCB would differ, the findings showed consistent similar relationships with both OCB dimensions. In other words, it is likely that an individual who is moved to engage in one kind of OCB will also engage in the other. However, the more-situational determinantsand specifically, the work and non-work variablesstrongly affected OCB-I, but not OCB-O. It thus appears that while individual values have similar effects on both dimensions of OCB, situational variables have differential effects. It should also be noted in this regard that a differential relationship also exists in the cases of OCB and in-role performance. The latter seems to be affected by a different set of antecedents, not all of which are examined here.
Some findings of this study were unexpected, and perhaps need further elaboration. First, while in accordance with the literature (Diefendorff et al., 2002) we anticipated and found a International Journal of Human Resource Studies ISSN 2162-3058 2018 positive relationship between job involvement and OCB and in-role performance, we did not anticipate a negative relationship between organizational commitment and OCB-I. Organizational commitment is considered a strong determinant of OCB, and indeed, affective commitment has been found to be one of its most consistent determinants (Meyer et al., 2002). The negative relationship here, as well as the non-significant relationship with other forms of performance, can perhaps be attributed to the specific setting examined here. Schools in Israel have no control over teachers' salaries, tenure-based promotions, etc. Rather, these matters are determined through negotiations between teachers' unions and the Israeli government. Thus, the school unit might not be perceived as a meaningful focus for commitment by many teachers, perhaps explaining the findings presented here. Future research should explore and replicate this finding in both the Israeli system and other similar systems in other cultures.
Another somewhat unexpected finding is the weak effect of the two non-work variables. The only significant relationship found was the expected negative relationship between work-to-family conflict and OCB-I. Coping strategies had no significant relationship with any of the performance variables. Again, a possible explanation for this finding may lie in the specific setting examined here. In Israel, teachers enjoy many vacations (which coincide with children's vacations) and very flexible work schedules. The profession is thus quite convenient for parents and other individuals with heavy family responsibilities. Perhaps in such a setting, employees experience fewer work-to-family conflicts and therefore have less need to apply coping strategies. More research in a variety of settings is needed to substantiate this explanation.
Finally, this study continues an important research direction, namely, examining the relationship between individual values and employees' attitudes and behaviors at the individual level. Indeed, by examining the impact of values on OCB and in-role behaviors, this study expands this line of research significantly (Ang, Van Dyne & Begley, 2003;Farh, Hackett, & Liang, 2007). The study contributes to the literature by examining the relationship between values, work and non-work variables, and performance in a culture very different from that of North American or Europe, thus enhancing our understanding of this relationship. This contribution is important because individual values may have different relationships with outcomes across different cultures, such as the individualist culture of North America or Western Europe vs the collectivist culture of the Arab world (Abd El Majid & Cohen, 2015;Wasti, Peterson, Breitsohl, Cohen, Jørgensen, Aguiar Rodrigues, ... & Xu, 2016).
The findings of this study, together with those of others (Cohen, 2007(Cohen, , 2009Abd El Majid & Cohen, 2015) support the need for further examination of individual values in the workplace setting. Individual values shape and affect employees' attitudes and behaviors not only across nations and cultures, but also within a given country or a given ethnic group. One important finding of this study is that the effect of individual values holds even when work and non-work variables are included in the equations. The findings showed that self-enhancement, self-transcendence, and conservation values are related to two of the outcome variables, even when their effect is evaluated after the inclusion of work and non-work variables. This finding strongly supports continued examination of individual values as predictors of International Journal of Human Resource Studies ISSN 2162-3058 2018 attitudes and behaviors in the workplace. It should be noted that the HLM analysis controlled for any variations that can be attributed to differences among the schools in the levels of commitment and outcomes. Thus, the findings here strongly reflect individual-level variations, not organizational ones.
Several limitations of this research should be noted. First, the target population of this study was Israeli teachers. Therefore, it is difficult to generalizing from the findings here to other cultures or occupations. There is a need for more studies that examine other cultures and occupations before solid conclusions regarding the findings here can be reached. Second, the cross-sectional design limits the possibility of drawing causal conclusions from the relationships found in this study. Despite these limitations, this study draw attention to important findings and its results point on some important directions for future research. More studies can increase our understanding of the effect of individual values and work and non-work attitudes on behavior in the workplace.