{'fraction_non_alphanumeric': 0.021505376344086023, 'fraction_numerical': 0.0, 'mean_word_length': 5.758064516129032, 'pattern_counts': {'":': 0, '<': 0, '<?xml version=': 0, '>': 0, 'https://': 0, 'lorem ipsum': 0, 'www.': 0, 'xml': 0}, 'pii_count': 0, 'substrings_counts': 0, 'word_list_counts': {'cursed_substrings.json': 0, 'profanity_word_list.json': 0, 'sexual_word_list.json': 0, 'zh_pornsignals.json': 0}}
Comparative Institutionalised Bilingualism in Kazan, Russia and Ürümqi, China

Abstract Based upon interviews and ethnographic fieldwork conducted in Kazan (Tatarstan, Russia) and Ürümqi (Xinjiang, China), the article proposes an explanatory framework consisting of structural and agential factors to address how and why normative and implemented bilingualism may differ across ethnically based autonomous regions. It argues that higher inter-ethnic integration can boost the capacity of titular elites to bargain with the centre, leading to more formal recognition of the titular language, even if not immediately augmenting its use in daily life; conversely, a more pronounced inter-ethnic divide can serve to sustain more vigorous informal use of the titular language, while at the same time impeding improvement of its formal status.