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New Approaches to Literacy Problems: Multiliteracies and Inclusive Pedagogies

This paper is based on a qualitative study examining multiliteracies (New London Group, 1996, 2000) and inclusivity. Underpinned by a socio-cultural approach, the study examined ways to facilitate meaningful literacy learning for students experiencing challenges in print-based, classroom activities. Key to this research was an analysis of how scaffolding was used to bridge home and school communities. This paper focuses on one of the study’s students, Hannah, who exhibited extensive engagement with multiliteracies at home driven through the Arts (e.g. graphic design, singing and music). In contrast, Hannah’s literacy experiences in the classroom were, at times, challenging and considerably different to those with which she engaged at home. Featuring iMovies and audiobooks, a multimodal literacy program connected the home and classroom, facilitating Hannah’s exploration of multimodality. Findings call for open-ended, flexible approaches to literacy education and a reinvigoration of initial teacher programs, to support diversity and inclusion in literacy education.


Introduction
Over the past two decades, many researchers have contributed to a reconceptualisation of literacy by challenging traditional models and theorising literacy as a social and cultural practice (Bull & Anstey, 2010;Gee, 1992;Kress, 2000Kress, , 2010New London Group, 1996;Vasquez, Janks, & Comber, 2019). A sociocultural view regards literacy practices as everyday social activities that take place in homes, schools or communities. Being literate involves understanding not only how to decode; it also involves being aware of the social and cultural contexts that surround various texts (Davies, 2012). A move toward a broader definition of literacy, away from a definition that focuses solely on skills and knowledge, has been fundamental in the shift towards multiliteracies. Adopting a sociocultural approach, this study aimed to generate new understandings about the learning of students experiencing literacy challenges in the classroom.
Reminding educators to adopt a balanced approach to literacy learning and to engage with literacy on a multitude of levels, it is the contention of this article that a pedagogy of multiliteracies framework (New London Group, 1996, 2000 represents a complimentary structure upon which to facilitate inclusive pedagogical practice (Florian, 2014a(Florian, , 2015a. Concerns about inclusion, diversity and the celebration of difference are central to a pedagogy of multiliteracies. Notwithstanding some key studies (Cumming-Potvin, 2007;Flewitt, Kucirkova, & Messer, 2014;Flewitt, Nind, & Payler, 2009;Lawson, Layton, Goldbart, Lacey, & Miller, 2012), students who experience literacy learning challenges have rarely been explicitly considered in the multiliteracies literature. This paper argues that a reconceptualisation of literacy learning, central to a pedagogy of multiliteracies, has the potential to facilitate inclusion (Florian, 2014a(Florian, , 2014b. This approach seeks to curb the narrowing of curriculum options such as 'high-stakes' testing and 'back-to-basics' approaches in which traditional print-based forms of literacy learning tends to dominate in classrooms (Cumming-Potvin, 2007;Cumming-Potvin & Sanford, 2015;Unsworth, Cope, & Nicholls, 2019). In addressing the needs of all students, educators must understand the impact narrowing the curriculum has on students and the consequences of devaluing one set of literacies at the expense of another.
Focusing on the experiences of Year 6 student, Hannah (pseudonym), the study analysed how scaffolding (Bruner, 1983;Cumming-Potvin, Renshaw, & Van Kraayenoord, 2003;Rogoff, 1990;Vygotsky ca., 1930Vygotsky ca., -34/1978) was used to bridge the gap between home and school literacy experiences. Scaffolding in this study refers to the assistance provided by peers or the teacher to support Hannah's learning. Interestingly this scaffolding often took place with a community of practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991) which promoted shared meanings and assisted Hannah with her literacy understandings. The case study approach privileged a deep understanding of Hannah's home and school literacy experiences. The initial motivation to build this case study was a desire to understand how students, who experienced challenges in print dominated environments, engaged with various literacy experiences. The case of Hannah is compelling because her story provides insights into literacy and inclusion issues arising in many classrooms and how such challenges may be addressed.

Multiliteracies and Multimodal Learning
The pedagogy of multiliteracies proposed by the New London Group (1996Group ( , 2000 marked a significant addition to the global body of literacy knowledge. Representing diverse fields such as literary analysis, linguistics, education and cultural studies, ten academics developed the theoretical framework and pedagogical practices of multiliteracies, thereby creating a vision of teaching and learning for the 21st Century. The four components of the pedagogy of multiliteracies are briefly defined in Table 1.

Component
Definition Situated Practice Immersion in experience and the utilization of available discourses, including those from the students' lifeworlds and simulations of the relationships to be found in workplaces and public spaces. Overt Instruction Systematic, analytic, and conscious understanding. In the case of multiliteracies, this requires the introduction of explicit metalanguages, which describe and interpret the Design elements of different modes of meaning.

Critical Framing
Interpreting the social and cultural context of particular Designs of meaning. This involves the students' standing back from what they are studying and viewing it critically in relation to its context. Transformed Practice Transfer in meaning-making practice, which puts the transformed meaning to work in other contexts or cultural sites.  (New London Group, 1996, p. 88) The use of digital technologies at home and in schools is now commonplace for many Australian students (DeBortoli, Buckley, Underwood, O'Grady, & Gebhardt, 2014;Moyle, 2010). Research in the area of literacy and multimodality indicates that students are more often engaging in digital culture in the home context (Cole & Pullen, 2010;Honan, 2012;Lynch & Redpath, 2014;Vasquez, Janks, & Comber, 2019). This engagement with multimodal literacies equips many students with new ways to create and share meaning as written-linguistic modes are often transposed with oral, visual, tactile, gestural and/or audio patterns of meaning (Kalantzis & Cope, 2011;Kress, 2000Kress, , 2010. While many of these forms of meaning making are often limited in the classroom context, an increased research interest into the crossover between school and home literacy practices points to the complexities and challenges facing educators and curriculum design (Chamberlain, 2015(Chamberlain, , 2016Cumming-Potvin, 2007;Krause, 2014;Rowsell & Kendrick, 2013).
Students of the 21 st Century need to become competent users of both print and other forms of multimodal meaning making (Cloonan, 2012;Pantaleo, 2019;Vasquez, Janks, & Comber, 2019;Walsh, 2007Walsh, , 2010. In the school context, policy documents such as the Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians (MCEETYA, 2008) endorsed by the Australian Education Ministers in 2008 (ACARA, 2018), have played a fundamental role in directing educational policy and curriculum directions. It remains a concern however, that while educators in countries such as Australia are often faced with a curriculum requirement to teach in a multimodal way (ACARA, 2018), implementation of practices to facilitate multimodal learning are not always clearly outlined in such texts (Gardiner, Cumming-Potvin, & Hesterman, 2013;Lynch & Redpath, 2014;Murphy, 2011).
Examining teachers' use of design and multimodality in literacy education, McLean and Rowsell (2013) contended that literacy teaching and learning should be more flexible and open to alternative types of meaning making utilised in classrooms. A multimodal approach to teaching and learning should encourage the use of and access to a variety of literacies and modes of meaning making to support reading and writing comprehension, critical thinking, and expression both at school and home (Kress, 2000;McLean & Rowsell, 2013). McLean and Rowsell (2015) asserted that educators "need to break and blend binaries of old literacy and new literacy models" (p. 104) and seek to "broaden the compositional landscape in which we teach" (p. 104). Examining one teacher's pedagogical decisions when working with touch technology, Simpson and Walsh (2014) found that where teachers have incorporated flexible pedagogies, students were supported in their literacy learning.

Inclusive Pedagogical Approach
The inclusive pedagogical approach has arisen from the work of a number of researchers, including Black-Hawkins, Florian, and Rouse (2007), Black-Hawkins (2014), Black-Hawkins (2011), Florian andSpratt (2013), Florian (2014aFlorian ( , 2015aFlorian ( , 2015b and Florian and Beaton (2017). With an aim to enhance educational opportunities for all students, this pedagogical approach seeks not to exclude or label individuals and presents learning as a shared activity between learners. In many educational settings, decisions about teaching and learning still tend to be rooted in bell-curve thinking and ability-level developmental norms (Florian, 2014a;Florian & Black-Hawkins, 2011). These measures of ability impose labels on students resulting in limits being placed on their learning and marginalisation in the classroom context (Florian & Black-Hawkins, 2011). Often, the solution is to exclude these students by providing them with something different or additional to the mainstream. In many cases, a specialist teacher provides that which is different or additional.
For Florian (2010), embracing diversity and facilitating equity requires extending what is usually available to all students. With a background in specialist education, Florian and Black-Hawkins (2011) critiqued the widely held assumption that only specialist trained educators can teach students with diverse needs. These researchers asserted that by expanding the pedagogical repertoire and providing for all students, teachers can be inclusive without having an expert knowledge of disability. While not diminishing the role of specialists, Rouse and Florian (2012) argued that support should be available to the classroom teacher rather than removing the student to meet with a specialist.
The inclusive pedagogical approach places importance on understanding teachers' craft knowledge of inclusive practice (Black-Hawkins & Florian, 2012;Florian & Black-Hawkins, 2011;Grimmett & MacKinnon, 1992). Craft knowledge refers to a teacher's accumulated wisdom and practical and pedagogical understandings developed through years of practice in complex classroom environments. Seeking to extend what is ordinarily available to all, the approach advocates "responsiveness to individual need," (Florian, 2014a, p. 17). Inclusion, from this perspective, is a dynamic enterprise that actively involves students in their learning. The teacher's role is to provide options for all, within the "community of the classroom" (Florian, 2015a, p. 11) rather than differentiating for some (Goddard & Evans, 2018;Klibthong & Agbenyega, 2018).

Research Context and Design
The context for Hannah's case study is a Year six Western Australian primary classroom. The school's Index of Community Socio-Educational Advantage (ICSEA) is approximately 1040 (MySchool, 2019), referring to a low-middle socio-economic urban area. Over one school term, the classroom teacher (Bethpseudonym) implemented a multimodal literacy program, which required the class to: 1.
Audioread 1 and discuss each chapter of The Bad Beginning (Snicket, 1999).

2.
Utilise the iPad application (app) Kid's Book Report to build a storyboard plan for an iMovie book review; 3.
Utilise the iMovie iPad app to create a book review of The Bad Beginning. While the whole class undertook these activities, Hannah's experiences became a focus of this study. Hannah experienced varying degrees of difficulty with traditional printbased literacy learning, which were identified using a combination of: Neale Analysis of Reading Ability (NARA) assessments, teachers' summative and formative assessments, and student histories.
Using a qualitative approach, which is deemed suitable for gaining an in-depth knowledge regarding participants' perceptions (Patton, 2002), research tools including semistructured interviews, classroom observations and work samples, were used to construct a case study of Hannah's literacy experiences. To focus the data-gathering process, the following research questions were investigated: • How did Hannah experience literacy activities when traditional print-based tasks were prevalent in the classroom? • How did Hannah engage with the multimodal literacy program? Drawing on Gee (2010Gee ( , 2013, an analysis of how Hannah experienced school and home literacy practices allowed for examination of the research questions. Hannah's case offers insights into how a pedagogy of multiliteracies and an inclusive pedagogical approach may facilitate access to literature, encourage exploration and response to texts. Prior to commencement of data collection all appropriate ethical approvals were sought and granted. The research was conducted in line with guidelines laid down by the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC, 2007), the Australian Association for Research in Education Code of Ethics (AARE, 2016) and the Murdoch University Human Research Ethics Committee. Through a process of written, informed consent, research participants were free to participate in the study or to withdraw any time. Data gathered were confidential, while the identity of the research participants and the setting were concealed. Anonymity was also assured through the use of pseudonyms. Table 2 provides a summary of the data collected as the study progressed.

Stage
Data Collection Stage 1 • Neale Analysis of Reading Ability • Interview One: Exploring student interests, likes and dislikes, perceptions about literacy.
• Interview Two: Exploring student perceptions about in-school literacy and using technology in-school.  When the first author initially met her, Hannah had attended Grove Primary School (pseudonym), for seven years. Hannah and Catherine (her best friend), were inseparable. Often in each other's company, the two girls shared common interests and were regularly seen working and laughing together. During classroom activities, Hannah was frequently observed to be on task and working diligently.
While Beth, Hannah's teacher, was not aware of a formal diagnosis, she explained that Mrs Wright, Hannah's mother, had reported that Hannah experienced a "mild intellectual disability" and had always worked at a level "at least two years below her peers". Hannah also explained that she experienced challenges, particularly with regard to her schoolwork. Hannah commented that she had "trouble with reading, spelling and writing". In contrast to the school context, Hannah reported that she used her iPad regularly at home. She explained that she loved using the art app, Paper by WeTransfer, for drawing in her iPad. While she did not utilise this app in class, Hannah used it to extend her love of art to her home environment. Upon opening the app, the user is presented with a simple blank page; however, the page can be transformed using artistic tools in the App. Pencils, paintbrushes, watercolours and an array of shades allow for artworks to be created by users. Hannah kept a portfolio of drawings in her iPad. She shared some watercolour paintings -landscapes, flower arrangements and people in her life with the first author.
Hannah also enjoyed playing games on her iPad. She engaged most often with High School Story and Minecraft, which were linked to an online community. Hannah explained that High School Story was a choose-your-own adventure story and a significant amount of reading was necessary. It was important to read the story so that players could progress through the quests and decide on a response to different scenarios. Hannah also played Minecraft. She had become adept at creating and building her own worlds. If she was unsure about how to do anything within Minecraft, she would ask Catherine or they would look on YouTube for tutorials. Hannah's interactions during these games were complex. She read widely, conducted research and engaged with an online community for support, ideas and friendship. Her strategy of collaboration, evident in the school setting, was also apparent online. These activities all demanded an understanding of literacy that moved beyond traditional classroom based text forms.
Hannah's interaction with these digital literacies was engaged and interested. Examining literacy from this perspective sheds light on how social and cultural practices contribute to different types of literacy development. As Marcon (2013) noted, digital online games act as social tools for communication and are integral to new literacies. Indeed, social interactions online appeared to provide a place where Hannah could extend her zone of proximal development (Vygotsky ca., 1930(Vygotsky ca., -34/1978) by engaging in collaborative discussions with friends and online members. Gee (2013) suggested that learning in this way is primarily achieved via shared experiences. He argued that learners who have gained knowledge through gaming simulations can eventually generalise what they have learned in other contexts and in more abstract ways. Accessing these literacies and harnessing them in the school context has the potential to enrich students' learning.
At home, Hannah also pursued her love for music. Her ambition was to learn to play the violin and write songs. During Interview Five, Hannah explained that she had begun to write her own songs about friends, life and school. Writing these songs longhand in a "special book", Hannah expressed a desire to keep these for when she was "grown-up". This was surprising to hear, particularly given that Hannah had expressed a dislike for handwriting in the school context. Hannah's love for music and singing appeared to be the impetus behind the desire to write songs; the motivation to write was authentic and embedded in social and cultural context.
Hannah explained that her online literacy experiences also extended to reading and writing activities on an iPad app called WattPad. This is a social platform where online community members can read others' stories and publish their own. Hannah especially liked to read the romance books published on WattPad. Being engaged with a community of practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991), to share meanings and develop understandings, appeared to positively influence Hannah's desire to read and write. Hannah's interactions with an online community of writers on WattPad were a source of great enjoyment with online romance stories providing a source of rich, literacy encounters. As Curwood (2013) asserted, in online collaborative spaces, such as WattPad and fandom sites, members are flexible in their degree of involvement and have an authentic audience that reads and responds to their work.
Hannah also reported that she preferred to use an iPad to write because she felt that it was easier and neater than writing by hand. This love of writing online was surprising given Hannah's reluctance to write in the classroom context. Although she was still writing her first story, Friends Don't Come Like That, at the time of Interview Five, Hannah was planning to write more under her pseudonym. She explained that she loved writing this way and that she could add pictures, use different fonts and incorporate other creative elements into her text. Hannah especially liked that she was able to share her stories online.

Hannah's Engagement: Analysis of the Multimodal Literacy Program
In collaboration with Beth, the classroom teacher, the principal researcher developed the multi-modal literacy program. Beth implemented the program in the primary classroom, while the principal researcher engaged with data collection, interviewing and observations. Hannah was excited to be part of the study. She liked being interviewed and sharing her perceptions about literacy. During interviews, Hannah stated that she was familiar with audiobooks and she enjoyed being read to. Experiencing situated practice (New London Group, 1996, 2000 in this way appeared to facilitate Hannah's understanding of The Bad Beginning audiobook. Researcher notes indicated that Hannah appeared to be listening actively during the audioreading. She was able to reflect on the experience of reading via the audiobook, and more specifically on events in the novel. Because Hannah had also viewed the movie, A Series of Unfortunate Events, at home, her knowledge of the movie supported her interest and engagement with the multimodal literacy program. When the multimodal literacy program progressed to using the Kid's Book Report App, Hannah was excited to use the iPad, but found the task challenging. At times, when Hannah was less engaged, she required extensive scaffolding to complete the task, which was essentially, a worksheet on the iPad. Students were asked to break the novel into elements of its narrative structure. Despite, Beth's overt instruction, prior to beginning the Kid's Book Report task, Hannah remained unclear about what to do. While she was able to verbally express the information under each section dictated by the Kid's Book Report, Hannah struggled to encode extensive information on the iPad. Figure One below, Hannah's Kid's Book Report work sample, illustrates how extensive scaffolding in the first section led to a more complete answer to the questions posed. In the subsequent sections, however, although Hannah was able to verbally express her thoughts, encoding these proved challenging and the responses were much shorter and less detailed. Utilising the First Steps Writing Map of Development (EDWA, 2013a), it can be argued that Hannah's book report displayed aspects of experimental and conventional writing. But in terms of commenting orally on her own writing, Hannah was able to verbally express a writing plan and make relevant distinctions between different parts of the narrative (EDWA, 2013a). She also displayed an ability to listen to a spoken text to obtain specific information (EDWA, 2013b).

Figure 1: Hannah's Kid's Book Report Work Sample
When Hannah moved onto using the iMovie App, she appeared more at ease. While iPad technology was not new to Hannah, she had only used iMovie in limited ways prior to the multimodal literacy program and was enthusiastic to learn more. During this task, Hannah learned new iMovie skills in collaboration with peers. Researcher notes from the time recorded that by working with Catherine and another classmate (Amanda), Hannah learned how to import images and add music to her project.
As she engaged with the multimodal literacy program, Hannah was scaffolded in diverse ways, which was important to meaning making. Teacher scaffolding often took the form of overt instruction (New London Group, 1996, 2000 directed to the class or specifically to Hannah. Hannah's friend, Catherine, was also a key individual who scaffolded Hannah's learning. On occasion, Catherine provided explicit information and at other times she guided Hannah by answering her questions and supporting her understandings, thus aiding both students in their growing comprehension of The Bad Beginning. While both students experienced literacy challenges, with Hannah, Catherine tended to adopt an expert role in an expert-to-novice relationship (Rogoff, 1990).
As Hannah progressed through the multimodal literacy program, she began to display an interpretation of the text that moved beyond a surface reading towards some degree of critical framing (New London Group, 1996, 2000. A term that stood out in interviews and informal discussions with Hannah was "problems". Hannah often commented that she liked the novel, The Bad Beginning, because it "had problems in it". This idea of a "problem" central to the storyline emerged after Hannah completed the Kid's Book Report -one element of the narrative structure was a consideration of the main problem in the text. From the perspective of critical framing, this early stage analysis is represented by a denaturalising of the text, which allowed for some personal distance and constructive critiques (New London Group, 1996). An example was evident when Hannah began to question some events in the novel. On one occasion, after a class discussion about how the students felt about the novel, Hannah stated: It was weird at the beginning because the parents died at the start. (Hannah, Researcher notes) A few minutes later, upon reflection, she declared: The parents aren't dead! (Hannah, Researcher notes) In isolation, these statements may appear unremarkable; however, the plot of the novel clearly stated that the parents had perished in a fire, leaving a fortune in inheritance. While this situation was set up as a mystery, it was fascinating to hear Hannah question that the parents had died at all. It appeared that Hannah was searching beyond a surface reading of the text. She began to recognise that her interpretation differed to that of others and began to interrogate the truth as presented in the novel.
During Interview Four, the principal investigator sought to extend some of Hannah's perceptions about the text and engage her more deeply in critical framing. Hannah's responses speak to a level of thought about the novel that was not apparent in her iMovie or during class discussions. When asked about Count Olaf's plans to marry Violet, Hannah responded: That was a shock. He is older than her [Violet] and when he said that, I knew he just wanted the money. In real life, he would go to jail. (Hannah, Interview 4) Later, in this same interview, Hannah was asked who she thought held the most power in the story. She replied: The kids because normally adults sometimes don't believe their kids coz they're kids. Coz they kept on saying and telling people that Olaf was bad and no one would listen but they kept trying. They ended up alive in the end ... They just kept trying. Like Violet wants to be an inventor. She invented things and they kept trying to get help ... They were smart and figured out stuff. (Hannah, Interview 4) By linking events in the novel with her own understandings about children and their relationships with adults, Hannah interrogated the text and was able to add meaning based on her own perspective (Kalantzis & Cope, 2005;New London Group, 1996, 2000.
Hannah enjoyed many aspects of the multimodal literacy program. Overwhelmingly, she appeared most engaged when making her iMovie review. Hannah's enthusiasm for the multimodal literacy program points to the value of using multimodal tools to express meaning. Hannah's comments about being able to "show yourself" were particularly insightful and stood in contrast to that which may be achieved in traditional print-based formats. While having the option to present in any format, in her final iMovie work sample, Hannah chose to follow the structure laid out in Kid's Book Report. Perhaps in order to "show herself", most of Hannah's review was completed by speaking to the camera. Although there was limited use of written text in Hannah's iMovie, in other sections she experimented by using images and incorporating music into her iMovie. After viewing her friend's iMovies, for example, Hannah commented in Interview Four that there were a number of special effects which her peers had used which she was not aware of and intended to try in the future. In this case, transformed practice (New London Group, 1996, 2000 was represented as Hannah began to exhibit a growing mastery of technical skills. As Oakley (2017) argued, creating and using multimodal texts with digital technologies has the potential to motivate and support literacy learners with diverse needs. She contended that digital technologies can fundamentally change literacy learning environments and provide an important means to enhancing inclusivity. In Hannah's context, creating digital multimodal texts offered learners with diverse needs a variety of options, which are essential to differentiated teaching.

Discussion
Hannah appeared to participate in literacy learning in meaningful and engaged ways by: 1.
Activating prior knowledge and immersing in meaningful learning via situated practice.

2.
Experiencing opportunities to create meaning in multiple ways.

3.
Developing shared meanings, which were scaffolded within a community of practice. These literacy practices appeared to be displayed more readily in the home context. However, they also became increasingly apparent during the multimodal literacy program. The latter sought to offer choice for students to utilise various modes of meaning making to suit their personal strengths and interests. During the multimodal literacy program, it became evident that engagement was linked to four pedagogical strategies that were key to scaffolding literacy learning and facilitating engagement. These strategies are discussed in the following section.

Strategy One: Engaging in Situated Practice
Seeking to engage Hannah in situated practice (Kalantzis & Cope, 2005;New London Group, 1996, 2000, the principal researcher encouraged the use of iPad technology because Hannah stated that she preferred working in ways that allowed for the integration of multimodal elements. The classroom teacher and principal researcher also facilitated situated practice by highlighting certain narrative elements of The Bad Beginning so that the students were familiar with the plot or could, at least, empathise with the characters. Finding a common interest in the adventures and humour portrayed in the novel, Hannah expressed a combination of amusement and distaste for Count Olaf and sympathy for the Baudelaire orphans. The case study data illustrated that Hannah held strong views surrounding moral and ethical norms about marriage and how parents and carers should treat children. Observations and discussions with Hannah about these moral and ethical norms indicated she was engaged by the ideas and could draw on known experiences to inform her discussions (EDWA, 2013c; SCSA, 2016).

Strategy Two: Scaffolding
As an enthusiastic verbal contributor, Hannah enjoyed social interactions in the primary classroom. Excelling in classroom discussions, Hannah often learned in collaboration with her peers and her teacher. This strength in oral language is an indicator of literacy development (Fellowes & Oakley, 2010;Purcell-Gates, Duke, & Martineau, 2007). Although she was challenged when asked to write, Hannah's discussions about literary texts displayed emergent literacy understandings (Purcell-Gates, Duke, & Martineau, 2007).
Hannah's understandings of The Bad Beginning developed as the multimodal literacy program progressed. The class and group discussions about the novel appeared instrumental in scaffolding Hannah's comprehension of the story. Social interactions between students, or the students and the teacher, were at the centre of the zone of proximal development (Vygotsky ca., 1930(Vygotsky ca., -34/1978) as less experienced learners interacted with those more experienced. Hannah relied on peers -in particular Catherine -to scaffold her understandings. Catherine did not display an ability to orient Hannah's thinking in the way that Beth, as a teacher, had done. However, Catherine was able to answer Hannah's questions, and Hannah confirmed her understandings during this peer interaction.
When it came to reading, Hannah found greatest success when she could choose her own reading material and when she was read to. Audioreading, during the multimodal literacy program, facilitated a deep reading of a complex text that Hannah would not have been able to access if she had to decode every word independently. Hannah explained that reading an audiobook allowed her to conjure images in her mind of the novel's events.
[  Argyropoulos, Paveli, & Nikolaraizi, 2018;Grover & Hannegan, 2012). Audioreading scaffolded Hannah to read above her actual reading level and experience a plot structure, theme and vocabulary of a complex text. The audiobook removed the requirement to decode and provided additional cues and clues for comprehension, including music, sound effects and intonations in actors' voices.

Strategy Three: Developing Critical Understandings
Beth's expert use of guided and overt instruction scaffolded the process of developing critical understandings and meaning making of the audiobook. This scaffolding facilitated Hannah's critical awareness as well as her understanding of narrative construction. As noted above, Hannah displayed an ability to critically analyse the text. When discussing The Bad Beginning text, she interrogated elements of the plot and questioned these in relation to her own norms and values.
Beth's guiding questions were also important in facilitating Hannah's consideration of multimodal as well as literary concerns. A key example was when Beth explicitly discussed the differences between audiobooks and printed books. The multimodal elements contained within an audiobook, such as The Bad Beginning, include sound effects, music and actors' voices to represent different characters. These affordances set the mood of the novel and provided an added dimension, not accessible in the printed format. After explicitly discussing the multimodal dimension of the narrative, utilising the metalanguage required to frame these ideas, Hannah came to understand and discuss the differences between the printed and digital texts. Garcia and Freidman (2011), Keane, Lang, and Pilgrim (2012), Rowsell, Saudelli, McQuirter-Scott, and Bishop (2013) and Simpson, Walsh, and Rowsell (2013) supported the notion that iPads, or touch technologies, increase collaboration among students using iPads for literacy learning. Hannah engaged in collaboration with peers, and to a lesser extent with her teacher, during the design and production of her iMovie review. During this task, Hannah learned new skills as she worked with Catherine to learn how to import images and add music to her project. Keen to be extended further, after viewing friends' iMovies, Hannah expressed a desire to create more iMovies and utilise more multimodal features.  supported the idea that iPads facilitate increased collaboration in the classroom. These authors also suggested that there is often augmented collaboration between students of different ability levels. They noted how struggling learners listened to the metacognitive problem solving of other students as they brainstormed issues that arose when using touch technologies. This type of collaboration appeared evident during the multimodal literacy program as Hannah actively sought scaffolding through peerpeer and teacherstudent interactions.

Conclusions
Data from the in-depth case study illustrated that while Hannah exhibited strong engagement with literacies in the home environment, her experiences in a print-dominated classroom were often challenging. Data analysis unveiled that Hannah appeared to participate in literacy learning in active and engaged ways when she could: 1.
Activate prior knowledge and immerse in meaningful learning via situated practice.

2.
Experience opportunities to create meaning in multiple ways.

3.
Develop shared meanings -scaffolded within a community of practice. Drawing on a pedagogy of multiliteracies (New London Group, 1996, 2000 and a framework for inclusive pedagogy (Florian, 2014a(Florian, , 2015a, this study sought to develop opportunities to facilitate meaningful literacy learning for students challenged in a print dominated primary classroom. Designed for this study, the multimodal literacy program sought to limit the emphasis on print-based modes of meaning so that case study students, such as Hannah, could explore a multimodal way of presenting their thoughts and ideas. Hannah's case study explored ways to engage and scaffold primary school students who experienced literacy learning challenges in a print-dominated environment. Researcher bias is acknowledged as an inevitable part of case study research (Yin, 2011); in this instance, the first author primarily executed the means of data collection. Nonetheless, frequent consultation with the co-authors as well as critical friends was vital for limiting bias and seeking alternate viewpoints (Kuh, 2016;Yin, 2011). In addition, institutional ethical clearance, member checking and multiple interviews were employed as crosschecking strategies (Yin, 2011).
Further, it is important to signal that a salient dimension of the multimodal literacy study was its focus on technology, in particular, the iPad. This research has attempted to keep up to date with technological shifts as well as amendments to iPad applications. The rate at which technologies are updated and superseded, however, may alter some findings, particularly over time. Such technologies tend to become more accessible as universal design processes are incorporated into devices (Maor, Currie, & Drewry, 2011). Notwithstanding, this paper contends that in a primary classroom context, to appropriately scaffold all students, in particular those who experience literacy learning challenges, it is necessary to plan for open-ended and flexible teaching and learning, which offers diverse modes and strategies for meaning making. Literacy educators are thus urged to consider addressing teaching dilemmas, which span home and school practices, rather than viewing literacy problems as internal to students. Training teachers in the use of current technologies is important to ensure educators have a comprehensive repertoire upon which to draw. Implications for these results point to the importance of reinvigorating initial teacher programs, to support diversity, equity and inclusion in literacy education.