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Applications of Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy (ESEM) in Pharmaceutical Development

The introduction of the environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM) permitted the examination of specimens in a gaseous environment [1]. ESEM has been used to reduce charging problems associated with pharmaceutical powders [2], and to study hydration of pharmaceutical excipients [3]. The ESEM has the advantage of extremely small sample requirements. Using the ESEM, we have been able to study changes in crystal morphology of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) during hydration and dehydration in the specimen chamber.