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Warlords, Bullies, and State Building in Nationalist China

were penetrated and subverted by local elites (Eastman, 1974: 21213). The experience of community-based cooperatives seems to have been little better. In Henan, Hebei, and Shandong, a number of community-minded pioneers launched cooperatives along with a range of other experiments in popular education and village selfgovernment. Peng Yuting in Zhenping county, the Mi lineage in Ding county, and Liang Shuming in Zouping experimented with local models of village education and rural development in the expectation that their models would be emulated throughout the country (Alitto, 1979: 215). The failure of any one of these experimental movements to undertake successful extension work beyond its home county or to make a substantial impression on basic problems of rural poverty or popular literacy stands as an indictment of them all. In histories of modem China, the cooperative movement merits attention chiefly to highlight the inadequacy of conservative reform agendas for alleviating systemic rural poverty.