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Examining the Relationship between Commercial Charcoal Production and Socioeconomic Variables in Nasarawa State, North-Central Nigeria

Charcoal is no longer a source of energy to only rural households but also a demanded commodity in urban areas around the world which has resulted in the commercialization of its production, particularly rural dwellers of developing countries such as Nigeria. Given the observed growing significance of charcoal in rural and urban livelihoods in Nasarawa State, this paper examined the relationship between commercial charcoal production and socioeconomic characteristics of the people involved in the activity. The study employed descriptive survey using both qualitative and quantitative data drawn from primary and secondary sources. Questionnaire was administered to 450 respondents randomly sampled from commercial charcoal producers drawn from 6 communities and 3 LGAs of Nasarawa State. Interviews and Focus Group Discussions were also Original Research Article Salamatu et al.; JGEESI, 24(3): 1-18, 2020; Article no.JGEESI.56248 2 conducted and the data obtained were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics in Microsoft Excel and SPSS (version 23). Results showed that commercial charcoal producers in the study area were mostly between 21 and 50 years with dominance of those between 31 and 40 (30.9%) while those above 50 years were least represented (6. 9%).There was slight dominance of women (52.4%) among the producers and the they were mostly primary (44%) and secondary (35.6%) school certificate. Majority (48.2%) had household size of 4 – 6 and more than half (52.9%) were married and earned 20,000 naira and below on monthly basis (46.4%). There is strong relationship between the socioeconomic status of the respondents and commercial charcoal production in the study area. Their socioeconomic status proved to have served significant motivation to their rising involvement in the activity. Also alternative economic activities that guarantees quick monetary rewards and is all age and gender engaging as well as requires no special skill and huge capitals for a start, should be planned for and introduced in the study area by the State Government.


INTRODUCTION
Nature has made several resources available for man's utilization. Unfortunately, man's need is insatiable and consistently growing in scale thereby posing danger to available natural resources which includes forest resource. Charcoal is one of the most utilized product of savannah woodland which is a natural resource, studies have shown that charcoal is no longer a source of energy to only rural households but also a demanded commodity in urban areas around the world which has resulted in the commercialization of its production, particularly among poor and rural dwellers of developing countries such as Nigeria [1]. In line with Pedro [2], any intervention that will be made to protect ecological system while also enhancing income through commercial charcoal production must seek to understand the nexus between socioeconomic status of the people and commercial charcoal production activity. Given that socioeconomic indicators are relative to locations/places; it is imperative to examine the indicator variables as they affect commercial charcoal production in specific area of interest. This would make interventions projects more effective, efficient and sustainable given that developing nations are often devoid of multiple sources of income and hence, rural dwellers tend to over depend on forest resources as source of income.
The impact of wood fuel and its derivative (charcoal) gotten from forested woodlands, on the energy requirements of developing nations cannot be underscored. It supplies about 95 percent of the cooking energy needs in the developing countries [3]. Inspite of the benefits derived from the forest and forest products, the world's forest is rapidly depleting. The rate of dependence on the savannah woodlands has exposed the forest to degradation, these has attracted concerned sectors of the world government in finding ways to curtail this increasing menace against nature. The United Nations Forum on Forest [4], addresses issues of biodiversity degradation, sustainable production and women empowerment as outlined in goals numbers 5 (Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls).
Although Africa's forests support the direct livelihood of 60 million rural people (providing food, medicine, fuel, fibre, non-timber forest products as well as social and cultural functions) and less directly support 40 million people living in urban centres in the forest domains [5], deforestation is continuing at alarming rates in many countries [6]. Approximately 30% of the wood harvested for fuel in Africa is used for charcoal production and between 2004 and 2009, global wood charcoal production increased by 9%. This is due in large part to the increase in wood charcoal use in developing African countries, unrelenting charcoal and fuel wood demand from around the world -especially, rapidly rising demand from Europe, USA and China.
This means that the forests of developing countries (Particularly, Nigeria which ranks second to Brazil among top ten wood charcoal production countries) are being harvested at unprecedented rates [7]. Often, this is done unsustainably or not in accordance with local laws. Road-building by logging companies has also opened up remote areas of forests to poaching and illegal logging.
In addition, the economic hardship, poverty, unemployment and increase in the price of oil witnessed in past few years, have necessitated the need for people to find alternative means of making a living in respect of domestic cooking energy in Nigeria. During the colonial periods, large number of people used firewood as domestic energy fuel, after the colonial era; there was a change in status quo, people embarked more on the use of electricity, fossil fuels such as kerosene and gas as cooking energy.
Nowadays, millions of households use charcoal as domestic and outdoor recreational cooking energy as a result of epileptic power supply, scarcity and increase in the price of oil and gas. According to UNDP [8], an estimate of 2.5 billion people lack access to modern energy services. They rely on traditional biomass sources such as wood fuel (and its derivatives), agricultural residues, and animal dung to meet their basic energy needs [9]. These activities are leading to destruction of forest cover, a situation aggravated by illegal commercial logging [10]. FAO [11] indicates that between 1990 and 2005, Nigeria lost 35.7% of its forest cover and only 12.2% of the country's land is currently forested while 350,000 hectares of land in the country are lost to desertification annually.
In 2010, Nigeria had 8.9Mha of forest cover, extending over 9.8% of its land area. It provides refuge for everything from rare and endangered plants and animals to ferocious militias accused of brutal crimes against humanity. In 2016, it lost 72kha of forest, equivalent to 5.4 Mt of CO₂ of emissions [12]. It is difficult to imagine that such vast ancient woodlands are at risk of extinction. But they are disappearing at an alarming rate. According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization [13], indigenous (also known as "old-growth") forests in Africa are being cut down at a rate of more than 4 million hectares per year which is twice the world's deforestation average. Furthermore, the Federal Government of Nigeria [14] estimates that, about 150 trucks transport charcoal to markets within and beyond North Central region per week. Households produce about 25 maxi bags of charcoal per month and sell about 95 percent of the output either within or outside the region.
This poses a worrying threat to the natural existence of tree biodiversity in the study area and the assertion (i.e. threatened forest) is underpinned by the Resource Watch Agenda's claim that extractions from the forest outpace the rate of forest replacement [15]. With Nigeria losing about 3.5 percent of its forest yearly, which is between 350,000 and 400,000 [16] hectares of forestland, the World Bank has extended Nigeria Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) Readiness Programme to Nasarawa State.
Given the observed growing significance of charcoal in rural and urban livelihoods, particularly in Nasarawa state, the attention of several authors has been recently drawn to the environmental consequences and socioeconomic implications of its production. Omoakin et al. [17] studied the environmental and socio-economic correlates of charcoal production in Oriire Local Government Area, Oyo State, Nigeria. Also, Ajadi et al. [18] looked at "subsistence living and global climate change: implications of bio-charcoal production for farmers in rural areas of Nigeria". They used a 25-item questionnaire to examine socio-economic implications of charcoal production for farmers of rural communities in Nigeria. Tunde et al. [19] studied the impact of charcoal production on the sustainable development of Asa Local Government Area, Kwara State, Nigeria. In their study, they use questionnaire, focus group discussions and interviews to conduct a survey on the inhabitants and producers to explore their views on method of production and the effects on their health and environment respectively and Jamala et al. [20] looked at socioeconomic implications of charcoal production and marketing in Nigeria.
Saving Nasarawa's forest from the chainsaw and axe of encroaching humanity is essential to the health and productivity of much of the national economy as forests are known to play the roles of watersheds, defences against soil erosion and regulators of local weather conditions. Hence, this paper examined the relationship between commercial charcoal production and socioeconomic characteristics of the people involved in the activity in a bid to devise a means of making the activity sustainable.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was carried out in Nasarawa state. The state has an approximate land area of about 27, 271.50 square kilometres and located in the basement complex of north-central Nigeria between longitude 6º45'03'' and 9º45'03'' of the Meridian and latitude 7º 45' 00'' and 9º 35' 00'' of the Equator. It shares geographical boundaries with Kaduna state in the north, Federal Capital Territory (FCT) in the west, Kogi and Benue states in the south, Taraba and Plateau states in the east. Nasarawa State has a population of 1,926,221 as the current projected population with a population density of 75/km2 (190/sg mi) making it one of the most densely populated States in the country [21]. The vegetation of Nasarawa state is Guinea savanna and the floristic composition is heterogeneous with a variety of species.
Based on the number of producers identified to be involved in commercial charcoal production in each of the six study communities, the Krejcie and Morgan's sample size determination table Krejcie and Morgan [22] was used to select appropriate samples for the study. The number of producers identified in each community and its associated sample size are presented in Table 1.
This paper utilized both qualitative and quantitative data. The data collected were in line with the aim of the paper. The study drew from both primary and secondary sources of data. Primary data on socioeconomic status of the people involved in commercial charcoal production; the reasons why they engage in charcoal production; the preferred tree species for the production and reasons, were sourced for the study. Secondary data were obtained from publications, annual and quarterly reports and books (hard and soft copies) that deals with the concepts and issues of charcoal production and tree biodiversity. Reconnaissance survey was carried out in the study area prior to the administration of questionnaire, conducting of interviews and focus group discussion. This enabled familiarization with, as well as obtaining of first-hand information about the study area through observation and casual interactions with the people.
Questionnaire containing both open and closedended questions was used as a tool for data collection. It was administered to commercial charcoal producers in the study area and to ensure thoroughness, respondents were enlightened on how to answer the questionnaire, and were also assisted in the case of personal disability or language barrier. A total 450 copies of the questionnaire were administered to the sampled respondents.
In addition, interviews and Focus Group Discussion (FGD) were conducted to enhance the data collected through questionnaire. The focused group discussion was conducted amongst three groups of producers based on age categories with gender balance comprising of 8 -12 participants in each group having younger generation producers (30 years and below), middle age producers (31 -45 years) and older generation producers (46 years and above). Two FGD sessions per age group were conducted in each of the selected communities in the study Area.  Source: Reconnaissance Survey/ Krejcie and Morgan [22] The acquired data was analysed using descriptive (tools: frequencies, means, percentages and cross-tabulation) and inferential (tools: chi-square) statistics. The raw data collected from the field was coded and analysed using Microsoft Excel spreadsheet (office 2016) and SPSS version 23. The results of the analysis were presented in form of tables and charts.

Age Distribution of Respondents
The age distribution of the respondents is shown in Fig. 2. Majority (78.2%) of the respondents were between the ages of 21 and 50 years. Those between 31 and 40 years constituted 30.9% of the respondents, followed by those in the age bracket of 41 -50 years (24.2%) and those between the ages of 21 and 30 years (23.1%). Those who were 20 years and below accounted for 14.9% while the rest 6.9% constituted those whose ages were above 50. It is not a surprise that majority of the charcoal producers in the study area were between the ages of 21 and 50 since the age category depicts the active periods of human life, given especially that the activity of charcoal production is an energy demanding venture. The implication is that more trees are likely to be cut for the purpose of commercial charcoal production since most producers are energetic to embark on consistent production which guarantees their economic wellbeing. This finding is corroborated by those of several authors [23,24] who also in their study discovered dominance of the active age categories in charcoal production.
Furthermore, age distribution of the respondents based on Local Government Areas revealed that in Akwanga, majority (36.4%) of the charcoal producers were within the ages of 21 -30 years. Those who were 20 years or below accounted for 26.4%, followed by 20.7% who were between 31 and 40 years of age. Those between ages of 41 and 50 and those who were above 50 years accounted for 12.1% and 4.3% of the sampled charcoal producers in Akwanga respectively. There was evidence of child labour among charcoal producer in Akwanga and this could be attributed to high participation of women in the activity within the area as most women tend to use their children to augment their energy and ensure effective production. This implies that commercial charcoal production is an all age and gender engaging activity and with the growing economic hardship in Nigeria and Nasarawa State in particular, it is likely that more rural dwellers in the study area will tend towards the forest for survival given that there is no age/gender restriction, hence more pressure on the forest woodland and the need to accesses the sustainability of their production processes and device/advice sustainable approaches if need be and also provide alternative economic activities in the study area.
A discussant in Aricha community of Akwanga LGA stated that: "As you have seen from the production sites, charcoal production involves lots of activities which allows people of different ages to participate including children as young as 6 years of age". Plate 1 shows some of the roles children plays in charcoal production in Akwanga.
On the contrary, in Doma LGA, the dominant age group among charcoal producers was 31 -40 years which accounted for 29.8% of the sampled respondents in the area. This was followed by those between ages 41 and 50 (28.1%), 21 and 30 (19.0%), 20 and below (14.0%) and then those who are above 50 years (9.1%). Also in Karu, those who were between 31 and 40 (39.2) were mostly involved in charcoal production, followed by those between 41 and 50 (30.7%), 21 and 30 (15.9%), above 50 years (7.4%) and then those below or equal to 20 years of age (6.9%).

Fig. 2. Age distribution of respondents
Source: Data Analysis 2018

Gender Distribution of the Respondents
The gender distribution of the respondents is presented in Fig. 3. It was revealed that out of the 450 charcoal producers sampled for the study, 236 representing 52.4% were female while the male counterpart accounted for 47.6%. The dominance of female in the charcoal production business was mostly noticed in Akwanga Local Government Area where out of 140 sampled respondents, 64.3% were female and 35.7% male. This highlights the important role of women in the charcoal production venture and could be attributed to the culture and religious believe in the area which permit women to engage in such venture as well as lack of alternative economic ventures that best suits their gender. This high presence of women in commercial charcoal production within the study area indicates increasing involvement of people of diverse gender in the business due to the quick financial reward as found in this study. This in turn poses adverse effect on the surrounding woodlands as their operations were found to be solely based on traditional method which requires more trees to be cut to ensure lucrative production. This finding disagrees with that of Beatrice et al. [24] who found that more males were involved in charcoal production than women and also that of Herd [25] who reported that charcoal production in the Chicale Regulado, Mozambique is dominated by males (77%) and that high number of women in the population was not expected due to the physical nature of the activity. This could be due to differences in culture, religious believe and economic opportunities between the study locations. Plate 2 shows the presence of women in commercial charcoal production in Akwanga production area.
Conversely, more male producers than female were observed in Doma and Karu Local Government Areas (LGA). Out of the 121 sampled respondents in Doma LGA, 54.5% were male and 45.5% female whereas in Karu LGA, out of 189 respondents, males accounted for 52% and female 48%. The dominance of male in these two locations could be attributed to the tedious nature of commercial charcoal production which requires a lot of energy as well as gender roles and responsibility based on the local culture. Alannah [26] found that cultural factors pertaining to religion, human strength and land dictated gender roles.

Educational Attainment of the Respondents
The educational attainment of charcoal producers in the study area as presented in Table 2 shows that the producers were comprised mostly of primary school (44%) and secondary school (35.6%) leavers. There were also quite a large number of those who had no formal education accounting for 13.1% of the total respondents while the remaining 7.3% consisted of those who had attained one form of tertiary education or the other. The educational attainment of commercial charcoal producers in the study area indicates that they may not be well informed about the consequences of their actions and inactions as it concerns vegetation cover. This implies increasing trend of forest degradation as most of the producers approaches the use of forest resources (trees) for their business with the common-goods attitude. The general pattern of educational attainment was also mirrored in the three LGAs except for Akwanga where those who had attained tertiary education (10%) were found to be more than those who had no formal education (5.0%). This could be due to the presence of colleges of education in the area which most of the respondents hinted to have attended. Those who had attained primary and secondary levels of education in the LGA accounted for 45.7% and 39.3% respectively. In Doma, majority (46.3%) of the respondents had

Distribution of Respondents by Household Size
It was observed that the inhabitants of the study area believed strongly in extended family system, hence their household size was determined by the husband, wife(s), children and relatives. Table  3 shows that almost half of the respondents (217) representing 48.2% had family sizes of 4 -6 persons, followed by 20.9% who had family sizes of 7 -9 persons. Those who had family sizes of 1-3 persons accounted for 14.9%, those from family sizes of 10-12 persons represented 11.3% while the rest 4.7% were those whose family sizes were above 12 persons. Findings from the study indicates that large family sizes serve as major sources of labour for commercial charcoal production. The implication is increased pressure on the forest resources existing in an already fragile ecosystem of the study area evidenced by the deforested environment.

Marital Status of Respondents
The marital status of sampled commercial charcoal producers is presented in the Fig. 4. It was found that more than half (52.9%) of the commercial charcoal producers in the study area were married, 24% were single while 18.9% were those who had lost either their wives or husbands. The rest constituted 3.6% who has been separated from their spouse and 0.7% who are having other forms of marital relationships. In Akwanga, 48.6% were found to be married, followed by 32.1% who were single, 14.3% widows/widowers while those who were separated from their spouse and those who indicated other kinds of marital relationship accounted for 3.6% and 1.4% respectively. In Doma, 57% were married, 22.3% were widows/widowers and 19% were single while 1.7% were separated. The marital status as observed in Karu indicated that 52.9% were married, 21.2% were single and 20.1% have lost their spouse to death, while those who were separated and those who have other forms of marital status accounted for 4.8% and 0.5% respectively. This high rate of marriage among commercial charcoal producers confirms the statement by one of the FGD participants in Doma production area that: "most of us are married and have at least two or more children, we therefore must do whatever we can to ensure that our families are being provided for. Commercial charcoal production is a quick rewarding activity with consistent demand, it can be started with no or very minimal capital and requires no special skill, hence the reason for our involvement in the activity". Table 4 presents the monthly income of commercial charcoal producers in the study area.

Monthly Income of Respondents
It was found that about half (46.4%) of the producers earn 20,000 and below, on monthly basis. This is followed by 41.1% who earn between 21,000 and 49,000 and 12.4% who earn 50,000 and above. The high number of producers in the 20,000 and below and the 21,000 -49,000 earning category could be attributed to the poor

Fig. 4. Distribution of respondents by marital status
Source: Field Data Analysis 2018 governance of the charcoal sector in the study area, which allows middle men to exploit the producers as revealed in an interview with some of the producers. The World Bank [28] as cited by Kifukwe [29], suggested that although commercial charcoal production is a major source of income among developing economies, the charcoal sector is still being poorly governed. In Akwanga LGA, 44.3% of the charcoal producers constituted those earning 20,000 and below on monthly basis, 42.1% earns between 21,000 and 49,000 while 13.6% earn 50,000 and above. In Doma, more than half (56.2%) of the producers earn 20,000 and below, 39.7% earns between 21,000 and 49,000 while only 4.1% earns 50,000 and above. Similar to earnings in Akwanga, 41.8% of the sampled respondents in Karu earns 20,000 and below, 41.3% earns between 21,000 and 49,000 while 16.9% earn 50,000 and above. The high number of producers in the 50,000 and above earning category at Akwanga and Karu could be attributed to the locations where they sell their products as most respondents from both LGAs claimed to sell their charcoals in Abuja and Keffi. A particular Chinese man in Karu LGA owns a company that produces and exports charcoal out of the country and also distributes to far places within the country, such as Lagos and Port-Harcourt. This finding implies that the almost immediate monetary reward from commercial charcoal production is strong attraction of people in the business hence exerting more pressure on already stressed ecosystem of the study area.

Distribution of Roles in Commercial Charcoal Production by Gender and Age Group
The chi-square and cross-tabulation result of the test of association between the roles commonly performed by commercial charcoal production and their gender and ages are presented in Tables 5 to 8. Table 6 show the relationship between gender and the various roles performed in the process of commercial charcoal production within the study area. The Pearson Chi-Square result of the association between gender and roles shows

Source: Authors' Photograph 2018
that there was a statistically significant (p-value < 0.01) association between gender and the roles performed by commercial charcoal producers. Furthermore, a cross-tabulation of gender and roles in commercial charcoal production as presented in Table 7 shows that cutting of tress for charcoal production and stacking of woods at the kiln location were mainly the role of men. Out of the 104 respondents who engaged in tree cutting and wood stacking, 100% and 93.6% were male respectively. Although covering of the stacked wood with grasses and/or sand proved to be a female dominated role in the State, the situation was quite different in Karu LGA. Overall, out of 378 respondents who engaged in the role, 54% were female while the male counterpart accounted for 46%. In Karu LGA, out 160 participants in the role, 51.3% were male while 48.8 were female.
This situation confirmed the statement by a discussant from Songo-Gitata community that: "Women here mostly engage in less energy demanding roles of charcoal production process in order to meet their small-small needs such as buying of their toiletries, hence they only sell their labour to main producers whenever such needs arises. Also, those who engages in the production proper often contract out the energy sapping aspects of the production males".
Furthermore, burning and monitoring of charcoal burning aspect of the production process shows that both gender was very well represented with slightly male dominance. Out of 427 participants, 53.9% were male while the rest 41.6% were female. This slight male dominance of male in this role was also reflected in Doma and Akwanga production areas. However, in Akwanga, more women were found to be engaging in the role where out of 128 participants, 68.8% were female and 31.2% were male. This could be attributed to the high involvement of women in the business as observed in the LGA coupled with more sociocultural freedom that is being enjoyed by women in the area as indicated by a discussant from Gudi community during FGD. Conversely to the case of tree cutting and wood stacking, the raking and separating of dirt from formed charcoal was found to be female dominated role with 61.5% female participant out of 239. Packing/bagging of charcoal was similarly dominated by women in the study area, out of 378 participants, 57.9% were female. This finding implies that although there is a pronounced involvement of women in commercial charcoal production in the study area, they were mostly concerned with less tedious aspects of the production process as male participants assisted them with such roles. This is in corroboration with the findings of [24,26,30,31] who found that women in commercial charcoal production often contract the tedious aspects of the production process to payed labour or rely on the services of adult male member of their families. Table 8 shows that there is statistically significant association between the ages of commercial charcoal producers and the roles they performed. The Pearson Chi-Square result was significant at p-value < 0.01. Furthermore, Table 8 presents the breakdown of the roles different ages engaged in. Out of the 104 participants of tree cutting those within the ages of 21 and 30 years (37.5%) dominated the role, followed by those whose ages were 20 and below (30.8%), 31 -40 years (20.2%) and 41 -50 (11.5%). In Akwanga LGA, those who participated in tree cutting were mostly (65.2% out 23 participants) 20  This finding indicates that the more tedious aspects of commercial charcoal production are handled by those within the active age brackets and the participation in different production roles decreases with increase in age. Beatrice et al. [24] noted that due to the tedious nature of commercial charcoal production, its operations are mostly carried out by energetic adults within the productive age bracket. Plate 3 shows some of the roles in charcoal production processes and the participating gender and age groups in the study area. Plate 4 in addition to what Plate 3 reveals also shows scenes of questionnaire administration, interviews and FGD.

CONCLUSION
Commercial charcoal producers in the study area were mostly between 21 and 50 years with dominance of those between 31 and 40 (30.9%) while those above 50 years were least represented (6.9%). The use of child labour in the production process was common in Akwanga production areas. Respondents' sex distribution revealed slight dominance of women (52.4%) among commercial charcoal producers in the study area, however, there were slightly more men than women in Karu and Doma production areas. The producers were mostly primary (44%) and secondary (35.6%) school certificate holders with a significant number of those with no formal education (13.1%).
Majority of the commercial charcoal producers were found to have household size of 4 -6, that is, 57.9% in Akwanga production areas, 33.1% in Doma and 50.8% in Karu. Cumulatively, it was 48.2% while those with household size above 12 (4.7%) were the least represented. More than half (52.9%) were married, 24% were single while the rest had either lost their spouse or in one form of relationship or the other. Most (46.4%) of the producers earn 20,000 naira and below while a few earn 50,000 naira or above on monthly basis. There were more high income earners in Karu (16.9%) and Akwanga (13.6%) production areas than those of Doma (4.1%).
There is strong relationship between the socioecomic characteristics of the respondents and commercial charcoal production in the study area. Their socioeconomic status proved to have served significant motivation to their rising involvement in the activity. Continued rise in the uncontrolled wood species extraction for commercial charcoal production without corresponding measures towards restoration or conservation, will reduce the capacity of trees cover to provide pasture, control soil erosion, medicine and energy requirement for society and livestock in study area.
Policies that aim to decrease consumption such as deployment of more efficient cook stoves are certainly well intentioned and logistically practical. However, the decreased consumption, and therefore decreased demand, will further exacerbate the standard of living for the numerous rural charcoal producers. Driving down the price and physical demand of charcoal is likely to stifle the charcoal production markets, on which a large and currently unknown percentage of the rural population relies. Therefore, regulatory system should be organised among the commercial charcoal producers and registered formally so that they can access incentives for acquiring sustainable technologies for charcoal production. This will reduce the quantity of tree species felled. Also alternative economic activities that guarantees quick monetary rewards and is all age and gender engaging as well as requires no special skill and huge capitals for a start, should be planned for and introduced in the study area by the State Government.

CONSENT
As per international standard informed and written participant consent has been collected and preserved by the authors.