{'fraction_non_alphanumeric': 0.05896805896805897, 'fraction_numerical': 0.05405405405405406, 'mean_word_length': 5.023668639053255, 'pattern_counts': {'":': 0, '<': 1, '<?xml version=': 0, '>': 0, 'https://': 0, 'lorem ipsum': 0, 'www.': 0, 'xml': 0}, 'pii_count': 0, 'substrings_counts': 0, 'word_list_counts': {'cursed_substrings.json': 0, 'profanity_word_list.json': 0, 'sexual_word_list.json': 0, 'zh_pornsignals.json': 0}}
Hydrometeorology of tropical montane cloud forests

‘Cloud forests’ differ from other forest types in that they are frequently or persistently immersed in groundlevel cloud (i.e. fog) (Stadtmüller, 1987; Hamilton et al., 1995). They differ not only in terms of their overall appearance and floristics (Grubb, 1977; Frahm and Gradstein, 1991; Barthlott et al., 2005) but also as to their hydrological and biogeochemical behaviour (Bruijnzeel and Proctor, 1995; Bruijnzeel et al., 2010a; Giambelluca and Gerold, 2011). Although some cloud forests occur at low elevations close to the ocean—such as the famous Redwoods in sub-humid California (Dawson, 1998) or the fog oases (‘lomas’) of the Pacific deserts in Chile and Perú; (Aravena et al., 1989; Calamini et al., 1998)—the majority are found in tropical montane settings (Mulligan, 2010). There are currently more than 560 confirmed sites with ‘tropical montane cloud forest’ (TMCF) (Aldrich et al., 1997; Mulligan, 2010). Depending on the method of mapping used, their areal extent has been estimated to range from 215 000 km2 (based on pre-set altitudinal limitations; Bubb et al., 2004; cf. Scatena et al., 2010) to 2 210 000 km2 (based on remotely sensed frequencies of cloud occurrence; Mulligan, 2010). On the basis of forest structural characteristics and degree of ‘mossiness’, tropical ecologists have traditionally distinguished tall lower montane rain forest (LMRF, 15–35 m) from medium-statured upper montane rain forest (UMRF, 2–18 m) and stunted sub-alpine rain forest [SARF, <9 m; also referred to as elfin cloud forest, (ECF)] (Grubb, 1977; Frahm and Gradstein, 1991). This subdivision of tropical montane forest types has been related to the occurrence of ground-level cloud by Grubb and Whitmore (1966) who suggested that LMRF had ‘frequent’, and UMRF ‘long persistent’ fog. Later, Grubb (1974) stated that tall LMRF could also occur in places that are largely free of fog. According to the latter criteria, all three types of montane rain forest distinguished above