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RAISON D’ÉTAT – RESEARCH CHALLENGES

Article is divided in two main parts. The first encompasses the research issues and challenges encountered by political scientists dealing with reason of state ( raison d’état ). These may be grouped into three classes. The first is associated with challenges in terms of definition, the second includes theoretical issues, and the third methodological questions. The second part of this article answers the question why is raison d’état worth researching as a category of contemporary Polish political thinking? While researching raison d’état, we encounter three main challenges: etymological and definitional, theoretical, and methodological. The first group of challenges is of an etymological and definitional nature. The second group of challenges is of a theoretical nature. These are associated with difficulties in the specification of the objective, subjective, spatial and time scope of the raison d’état . The third group of challenges includes the methodological challenges associated with the selection of the research approach. We may differentiate three main methodological approaches (normative, declarative and the realistic one). Despite numerous difficulties and challenges, the issue of raison d’état is a research area worth consideration. There are several reasons why this area should be studied (the attractiveness of raison d’état as a scientific category in political science, the usefulness and validity of studying raison d’état which may be corroborated by the relevance of this research category and the Polish specificity of the understanding of reason of state).


INTRODUCTORY NOTES
The concept of raison d'état is widely used in political journalism, official statements, and political and governmental documents. Raison d'état is a multidimensional concept, which results from simplified and often popular opinions regarding what raison d'état is, and what it is not. The raison d'état domain is often mistakenly identified with rationally calculated and legally protected State secrets, which involve mostly its defence, security policy, special services or economic secrets. Conceptual chaos, intuitive judgements and popular ideas seem to be the reason which discourages political scientists and analysts from deepened and systemic research into this political category.
This article is divided in two parts. The first encompasses the research issues and challenges encountered by political scientists dealing with this research category. These may be grouped into three classes. The first is associated with challenges in terms of definition, the second includes theoretical issues, and the third methodological questions. The second part of this article answers the question why is raison d'état worth researching as a category of contemporary Polish political thinking? Raison d'étatone of the basic vital interests, based on the hierarchy of goals and measures for their achievement, including the goals non-negotiable with foreign entities (as well as the goals to be achieved in the EU); and the materialisation of constitutional principles and values, and is subject to systematic updating and is publicly justified 5 .
The constitution plays a vital role in the establishing of the national interest. It does not, however, define any specific category of overriding interests, nor does it outline their precise hierarchy. When analysing the Polish constitution in terms of the national interest, three general conclusions can be drawn, i.e. (1) the traditional category of the national interest is the most clearly manifested in the foreign policy and international relations of the State, although it also emphasises the internal-policy objectives, identifying both its weaknesses and strengths; (2) the constitution safeguards the traditional categories determining the vision of the national interest i.e. independence, sovereignty, democratic-system values, and the democratic concept of human and civil rights; (3) this fundamental Act of law identifies international cooperation as a new form of protecting the Polish national interest 6 .
The analyses of raison d'état, which appeared in political-science literature (Polish and foreign) allow the definition of its different interpretations. The following definitions of raison d'état are the most popular: (1) the reason for having a sovereign State; (2) functioning in accordance with realistic principles; (3) the necessity of using special measures; (4) ensuring the security of the State and its citizens; (5) searching for objective principles and determinants of foreign policy; (6) the justification of unethical actions of the authorities or the public; and (6) the "clash" between ethics and politics.
The cited definitions have one thing in common. First of all, they associate raison d'état with the State as its basic and the only carrier; secondly, they unanimously suggest that it is the question of the most important values and needs, although not defined. However, this would be impossible, mostly due to the highly individualised nature of this category and its variability in time and space 7 .
The second group of challenges is of a theoretical nature. These are associated with difficulties in the specification of the objective, subjective, spatial and time scope of the raison d'état. The scientists agree that the raison d'état includes the basic, superior, most important or universal interests of the State. Undoubtedly, the "vital" State interests include its existence, security, internal organisation and national identity, as well as stability and developmental perspectives. This notion means that raison d'état includes only part of the most important national interests. Kazimierz Łastawski defined raison d'état as the value reflecting the actual nationwide interests. Moreover, Łastawski points to the volatility of the implementation context of these interests, as well as the impact of raison d'état on the State strategy 8 .
A detailed specification of interests encompassed by raison d'état is difficult to be made for many reasons, among which methodological orientation is very important. The scientists appreciating the realistic paradigm prefer "definite" interests referring to the 126 J. Sanecka -Tyczyńska State, mostly national security, territorial integrity, sovereignty and independence. On the other hand, the admirers of the liberal (idealistic) approach are willing to perceive also other values also, such as freedom, human rights, standards of living, etc. This means that we don't have one, inter-subjective definition of raison d'état 9 .
It is necessary to prepare a catalogue of interests and values forming raison d'état postulated by various currents of political thought. The fact that a particular raison d'état of a selected State is easier to be analysed from the historical perspective has resulted in a lack of studies treating raison d'état as a category of political thought.
In accordance with the findings by Ryszard Zięba, Polish literature presents differences in thinking about the time range of raison d'état. Some accentuate the durability and long-term nature of the interests and values represented by raison d'état. Some scientists assume that raison d'état is relatively stable, and evolves after changes in the distribution of forces in the State or evident reshuffles on the international area. The third approach accentuates the historical variability and evolution of interests forming raison d'état. In this context, raison d'état has a definite time perspective, and includes the interests important in given times 10 .
It should be stressed that raison d'état is defined by the ruling authorities. This is connected with another challengethere is the issue of the superficial identification of raison d'état by the examination of the traces and testimonies of political thought. The studies should be enriched by the recognition of political practice and the actual achievement of the assumed goals of domestic and foreign policy.
The third group of challenges includes the methodological challenges associated with the selection of the research approach. The definition of raison d'état depends on the methodology applied by the scientists in their studies. According to Ziemowit Jacek Pietraś, we may differentiate three main methodological approaches. The first onenormative, when politicians and scientists formulate the future and desired objective scope of raison d'état, namely the basic interests and goals of the State. The second onedeclarative, when scientists analyse the political declarations of the central authorities of the State. This is an empirical approach examining declarations, and, thereby, voiced concepts. This research attitude leads to the conclusion that raison d'état forms a system of the most important political justifications for actions taken or intended to be taken. The third methodological position is called the realistic one. This is represented by the scientists, who do not limit themselves to an analysis of political declarations and programmes, but make the effort to reconstruct raison d'état on the basis of concrete actions by the State. They conclude that raison d'état forms a historically changing system of the basic, foreign and domestic interests of the State pursued in uncompromised way. The last approach seems to be the most useful and ensures the full recognition of the notion of raison d'état. However, it should be remembered that the dynamics of 9  international relations still requires the politicians to conduct continuous analysis and formation of new opinions, each time based on the changing reality 11 .
In political studies, raison d'état may be analysed in two ways. 1) As the only one and valid standard or directive for the activities of the State authorities (an analysis of State documents, strategy and legal Acts reflecting raison d'état is necessary). 2) As a category of political thoughteach political party has its own way of defining and formulating the concept of raison d'état (an analysis of not only testimonies of political thought but also its traces, i.e. the decisions taken by politicians who were active in the political arena or participated in governing are necessary to identify the issue to the fullest-possible extent). In the second approach, the recognition of the elements forming raison d'état in the political thoughts of a given party shall undoubtedly be challenging, because politicians willingly use final notions, usually taken arbitrarily, such as "raison d'état" or "the national interest". At the same time, raison d'état is an argument in political debateeveryone who is of a different opinion is treated as a dilettante or a betrayer. Regardless of the level of political debate, the general question which should be answered by politicians is: what should we change in Polish social reality to achieve the goals recognised as strategic ones, namely securing the realisation of raison d'état?
The raison d'état policy almost always is an attempt to make the postulated values a reality. The situation is different when raison d'état is perceived mostly from the ideological and propagandist perspectives. In accordance with this way of thinking, in a democratic State, among other things, it is the opinions of the electorate that impact on the formulation of raison d'état. Therefore, the replication of opinions regarding the manner of achievement of the vital state interests is more justifiable than a normative analysis. This perspective is a source of proposals to reject the concept of raison d'état as the propagandist and ideological category useless in scientific analysis, and replace it with the notion of interest more useful in scientific analysis 12 .
Considering all the previous findings, we should argue that political-science studies on raison d'état should not be limited only to the foreign policy, security and prestige of the State at the international level (the external domain). The belief that the notion of raison d'état corresponds only and exclusively, or even mostly, to foreign policy, is a misconception. The State means the country 13 . Other dimensions should be also consideredthose relating to domestic policy, by which raison d'état may be achievedthe area of values, national identity, social well-being, economic solutions or even historical policy 14

WHY CATEGORY OF RAISON D'ÉTAT IS WORTH STUDYING?
Despite numerous difficulties and challenges, the issue of raison d'état is a research area worth consideration. There are several reasons why this area should be studied. First of all, we should agree with Ryszard Stemplowski that raison d'état is a very important standard, because it refers to central-government authorities as "the postulate of specific conceptualisation, namely the modelling of activities in the form of the administration of the State policy; it functions as the theoretical element of social practice". Moreover, it particularises the hierarchy of policy goals and measures to achieve them, including the goals negotiated with foreign entities 15 .
Secondly, the usefulness of studying raison d'état may be corroborated by the relevance of this research category. Despite the dynamic development of globalisation processes and the transformation of traditional domestic policy (e.g. the phenomenon of "post-policy"), it should be stressed that the categories of raison d'état and the national interest still form an important determinant of political debate 16 . Although the processes of the globalisation and internationalisation of international life and the regionalisation of economic and political processes are having an increasing impact on the policy of individual countries, there are still national states that require the shaping of conditions for the achievement of their raisons d'état.
The issue of raison d'état is even more up to date, as some forecasts suggested by the scientists did not prove correct. Contrary to forecasts popularised in the 1990s, the 21 st century will be the post-national era, and the "end of history" did not take place either. On the contrary, we are witnessing the rapid growth in importance of the issue of the State as an player in international relations, and challenging the supremacy of the State as compared to other phenomena taking place in the international relations. Despite transformations in the area of the tasks and functions of the State, the State is the most important link in international order.
The issue of sovereignty is perceived as being in the background of discussions about integration with the European Union recently held in Poland. Polish citizens are particularly sensitive about this matterand they have historically-justified reasons. But this does not change the fact that the traditional understanding of sovereignty todayin conditions not only of membership in the EU but also of the progressive processes of globalisationrequires quite significant re-evaluations. Sovereignty understood as full independence from the external environment is losing its foundations. Its contemporary sense seems to be more accurately expressed by definitions pointing to subjectivity and abilities of States to achieve their raisons d'état. The European Union more often talks about collective or commonly achieved sovereignty. Yet President Charles de Gaulle used to say that international relations and alliances are not entered into to weaken sovereignty but to actually strengthen it 17 .
Undoubtedly, in the conditions of European integration, we are dealing with the re-valuation of raisons d'état. However, this does not change the fact that raison d'état is still the principle of the primacy of the updated, vital and non-negotiable interests of the Republic of Poland. In the process of integration, it can be transformed into a principle that takes into account the co-defining by Poland and the achievement of the common objectives referring to both Poland and the whole structure of the European Union. The debate about raison d'état was revitalised due to the draft of the Constitutional Treaty for the EU. The establishment of the EU as a political commonwealth favours convergence and the simultaneous development of national and ethnic cultures, and therefore it is also in the interests of peripheral States, i.e. more poorly developed Member States of the EU, including Poland. The paradox is that although the notion of raison d'état is one of the most important issues, the contents of raison d'état are not the subject of a continuous decisive process conducted by the governing authorities that pursue policy, but rather a result of the permanent process of social construction and reconstruction. This paradox might be a feature of democracy. The official definition of raison d'état, or only particular interests, might be an instrument of pursuing policy of the Cabinet and parliamentary monitoring of its functioning, and postulates corresponding to contents of these notionsan important factor of public debate in the country and the EU 18 ".
In the Third Republic of Poland, the idea of raison d'état is still vivid and seems to be current as long as the Polish State shall exist. The global economic crisis as well as the war between Russia and Georgia of 2008 strengthened the way of thinking in terms of the national interest. Questions about the basic assumptions of foreign policy were renewed, which led to a strong dispute in the public debate about Polish raison d'état, in particular in the context of membership of Poland in the EU 19 . Poland is one of the few States where in the field of contemporary political journalism, political debates and works in the area of social sciences the notion of raison d'état is commonly used or even abused.
Thirdlythe attractiveness of raison d'état as a scientific category in political sciences is confirmed by its positive connotations being a characteristic feature of the Polish contemporary meaning of raison d'état. As opposed to the majority of contemporary European countries, this notion is treated positively and often appears side by side with "the well-being of Poland" or "the national interest" 20 . For centuries, this notion was nearly absent in the language of politics and political thinking. It gained popularity at the end of the 19 th century, and particularly in the 20 th century. The term, which in majority of countries is associated with Machiavellism, absolute power or supremacy of the interests of the State over the well-being of the citizens and with justification for the reprehensible acts of the authoritiesin Poland is understood as something positive.
In many Western Europe countries, raison d'état brings negative associations with the assignment of excessive prerogatives to the State and its leaders, whichespecially after the liberation of the political domain from religious and ethical connotations, which is occurring in contemporary timesis resulting in numerous examples of power abuse. The basic interest of the State was the main justification for bad or even criminal acts, and belief in higher purpose, namely the well-being of State, silenced the voice of conscience strong in the "classical" tradition. Actually, the notion of raison d'état has been contemporarily abused so many times that it is not surprising that it evokes such negative connotations in many countries 21 .
Fourthlythere is a need to illustrate the Polish specificity of the understanding of raison d'état. The Polish specificity of understanding the importance of the national interest should be underlined. Here, we should pay attention to specificity of the countries located in Central and Eastern Europe, which regained sovereignty (the main category of raison d'état) after 1989, liberating themselves from the supremacy of the Soviet Unionin this case, the significance of the national state and its interests is more important than in Western Europe. The category of raison d'état was used in Poland not only by politicians realists, what was the feature of Western Europe, where raison d'état is strictly connected with Realpolitik 22 .
In the case of Poland, the notion of raison d'état is not reserved only for a realistic review of the international reality, and the biggest Polish politicians and theorists referring to the notion of raison d'état very often also repeated the principles of morality or justice and thought that their importance was invaluable in international relations. Therefore, they often modified their realism with elements of an idealistic approach to international relations 23 .
The idea of raison d'état in Poland shared the features of the traditions of Western Europe as well as specific Polish values visible in freedom ideas and reluctance to submit to strong State authorities. The Polish tradition of thinking about raison d'état encompasses various elements, although republican elements were dominant. With the background of the development of Western European countries, Poland avoided the model of the strong, absolutist State. Polish historical experiences and roots revealed that the Republic of Poland for ages cultivated ideas of freedom and at the same time was characterised by an aversion to strong State authorities. This is confirmed by the fact that the idea of raison d'état worked out in the Polish background shared a lot of elements characteristic of the tradition of Western Europe. The conditions for achievement of raison d'état were variable 24 .

FINAL REMARKS
While researching raison d'état, we encounter three main challenges: etymological and definitional, theoretical, and methodological. The first group of challenges is of an etymological and definitional nature. The second group of challenges is of a theoretical nature. These are associated with difficulties in the specification of the objective, subjective, spatial and time scope of the raison d'état. includes the methodological challenges associated with the selection of the research approach. We may differentiate three main methodological approaches (normative, declarative and the realistic one).
Despite numerous difficulties and challenges, the issue of raison d'état is a research area worth consideration. There are several reasons why this area should be studied. Firstly -raison d'état is a very important standard, because it refers to central-government authorities and particularises the hierarchy of policy goals and measures to achieve them, including the goals negotiated with foreign entities. Moreover, each state in its action and activity on the international scene is guided by reason of state, expressing its main interests. Secondly, the usefulness of studying raison d'état may be corroborated by the relevance of this research category. Despite the dynamic development of globalisation processes, the categories of raison d'état and the national interest still form an important determinant of political debate. Thirdlythe attractiveness of raison d'état as a scientific category in political sciences is confirmed by its positive connotations being a characteristic feature of the Polish contemporary meaning of raison d'état. Fourthlythere is a need to illustrate the Polish specificity of the understanding of raison d'état. The idea of raison d'état in Poland shared the features of the traditions of Western Europe as well as specific Polish values visible in freedom ideas and reluctance to submit to strong State authorities.