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The Fengzeng System in Song China

In ancient China, filial piety occupied a crucial position. The highest yi 義 (righteousness) is respect for ancestors, and the ultimate ren 仁 (benevolence) is to make parents illustrious. These were universally accepted moral values. Consequently, the fengzeng 封贈 (enfeoffments and posthumous honours), a system that gives honourific titles to officials, their ancestors and other family members, has played a significant role. In spite of its tremendous importance in ancient Chinese history, the system has been studied very little. This article conducts an in-depth examination of the concept of fengzeng by focusing on the following three questions: from whence does the system originate, and when did it begin? How can we differentiate feng from zeng? And, finally, what normative principles does the system represent?