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Women’s NGOs in Pakistan

Women’s NGOs in Pakistan makes an important contribution to the areas of women’s studies and social movements by detailing both the challenges faced by Pakistani feminists and their responses to these obstacles. Afshan Jafar derived her data from participant observation and in-depth interviews with NGO workers. The first chapters outline the historical development and challenges faced by Pakistani feminist activists. The remainder analyze two contemporary NGOs: ActionAid Pakistan and the Aurat Foundation. Various political and ideological transformations shaped Pakistani women’s activism. Anti-colonial movements were pivotal in several ways. First, they temporarily freed Muslim women from traditional restrictions. They also provided activists with their first taste of political participation. Finally, the proposed Muslim homeland lacked ethnic cohesion. Thus, national unity became rooted in religious rather than ethnic identity. The latter aspect profoundly shaped, and continues to shape, Pakistani women’s NGOs, often in ways counter to feminist sensibilities. Religious constraints were evident early on. Traditional dictates limited women to activities that extended their roles as mothers and nurturers. Thus, Pakistani statehood marked a shift from advocacy to service provision for refugees from India. This practical needs focus provided a framework for the All Pakistan Women’s Association (APWA) founded in 1949. APWA strove to improve women’s health and educational attainment. APWA also championed women’s strategic needs, somewhat. It lobbied for the 1961 Family Law Ordinance, which outlawed oral divorces, required a man to obtain permission from his spouse before taking additional wives, and allowed women to choose spouses and initiate divorce. However, Pakistan’s Islamic identity tempered these gains. As women entered the public sphere in large numbers, they became subject to strict morality standards. NGO activity was likewise limited: organizations shied away from far-reaching agendas. Activists feared that further demands would alienate a wary public. Women’s activism waned until Zia-ulHaq’s presidency (1977–1988). Assuming power via a military coup, Zia used radical Islam to legitimate his rule. He seized upon women’s heightened public visibility, which concerned both lay and religious groups, to further his political agenda. Zia equated women’s labor force participation with ‘‘Westernization,’’ a threat best neutralized by traditional patriarchal values. Zia undermined previous gains through various means. For example, he demanded that women conceal themselves beneath chadors and embrace traditional roles. He also imposed the 1979 Zina Ordinance, which decriminalized statutory and marital rape, and increased the legal standards for forcible rape convictions, while leaving victims vulnerable to adultery charges. Zia’s policies revived the Pakistani women’s movement. They also necessitated organizational strategies rooted in advocacy as opposed to service provision. The Women’s Action Forum (WAF), for example, provided legal assistance for Zina victims and raised awareness about the ordinance itself. WAF faced many challenges: Zia suspended fundamental constitutional rights and banned political parties and demonstrations. WAF, too, was fragmented internally. Nonetheless, it successfully challenged Zia’s proposed ‘‘Law of Testimony,’’ which equated the testimony of two women to that of one man. Women’s conditions improved little under Zia’s successor, Benazir Bhutto. Her Pakistan People’s Party needed conservative support for survival. Her successor, Nawaz Sharif, implemented further misogynistic laws under the banner of ‘‘Islamization.’’ Jafar also addresses the challenges of contemporary fundamentalism. Islamic fundamentalism is hard to confront in Pakistan, given its religious as opposed to ethnic identity. Fundamentalism stands in for ‘‘cultural authenticity’’ among radicals, and feminist activism becomes synonymous with Westernization. Consequently contemporary activism is precarious given the increasing hostility. If Reviews 699