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{{other uses}}{{pp-move|small=yes}}{{short description|Republic in South America}}{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2018}}{{Coord|10|S|76|W|display=title}}

}}}}| common_name = Peru| name = {{collapsible list
|titlestyle = background:transparent;line-height:normal;text-align:center;font-size:84%;
|title = {{resize|1.0 em|Co-official names}}{{efn|name=a|In Peru, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages. In each of these,
Peru's official name (, pronounced: {{IPA-es|reËˆpuÎ²lika Ã°el peËˆÉ¾u|}}) is as follows:
  • }}|

}}| image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg| image_coat = Escudo_nacional_del_PerÃº.svg100pxesCoat of arms of Peru#Variants>Gran Sello del Estado|nolink=on}}Great Seal of the StateSeal (device)>National seal"Firme y feliz por la uniÃ³n" (Spanish language>Spanish)"Firm and Happy for the Union"esNational Anthem of Peru>Himno Nacional de PerÃº""National Anthem of Peru"}}{{center|(File:United States Navy Band - Marcha Nacional del PerÃº.ogg)}}
{{vunblist |March:"Marcha de Banderas" (Spanish)"March of Flags"(File:Marcha_de_banderas_(JosÃ©_Sabas_Libornio_Ibarra,_1895).ogg)}}| image_map = PER_orthographic.svg| map_caption = | image_map2 = Peru_-_Location_Map_(2011)_-_PER_-_UNOCHA.svg| capital = Lima12S1.7type:city}}| largest_city = Lima| languages_type = Official languagePeruvian Spanish>Spanishname=a}}| languages2 = {hide}unbulleted list {edih}| ethnic_groups = {hide}Collapsible list
|titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;font-size:100%;
|title = List of ethnic groups|{{plainlist|
  • {{percent|13,965,254|23,196,391|2|pad=yes{edih} Mestizo/White
  • {{percent|7352422|23,196,391|2|pad=yes}} Amerindian
  • â€”{{percent|5,774,879|23,196,391|2|pad=yes}} Andean
  • â€”â€”{{percent|5,176,809|23,196,391|2|pad=yes}} Quechua
  • â€”â€”{{percent|548,232|23,196,391|2|pad=yes}} Aymara
  • â€”â€”{{percent|49,838|23,196,391|2|pad=yes}} Other
  • â€”{{percent|210,612|23,196,391|2|pad=yes}} Amazonian
  • â€”â€”{{percent|55,489|23,196,391|2|pad=yes}} AshÃ¡ninka
  • â€”â€”{{percent|37,690|23,196,391|2|pad=yes}} Aguaruna
  • â€”â€”{{percent|25,222|23,196,391|2|pad=yes}} Shipibo
  • â€”â€”{{percent|12,945|23,196,391|2|pad=yes}} Chayahuita
  • â€”â€”{{percent|79,266|23,196,391|2|pad=yes}} Other
  • {{percent|828,841|23,196,391|2|pad=yes}} Black
  • {{percent|36,841|23,196,391|2|pad=yes}} Asian
  • â€”{{percent|22,534|23,196,391|2|pad=yes}} Nikkei
  • â€”{{percent|14,307|23,196,391|2|pad=yes}} Tusan
  • {{percent|241,947|23,196,391|2|pad=yes}} Other
  • {{percent|771,026|23,196,391|2|pad=yes}} No answer
}}}}2017 Peru Census>2017{{efnThe 2017 Peru Census included, for the first time, a question of Ethnic identity>ethnic self-identification that was addressed to people aged 12 and over considering elements such as their ancestry, their customs and their family origin in order to visualize and better understand the cultural reality of the country.}}| demonym = PeruvianUnitary state>Unitary Presidential system republicSHUGART AUTHOR-LINK= TITLE=SEMI-PRESIDENTIAL SYSTEMS: DUAL EXECUTIVE AND MIXED AUTHORITY PATTERNS URL-STATUS=DEAD ARCHIVE-URL=HTTPS://WEB.ARCHIVE.ORG/WEB/20080819200307/HTTP://DSS.UCSD.EDU/~MSHUGART/SEMI-PRESIDENTIALISM.PDF ACCESS-DATE=31 AUGUST 2017 REF=HARV, SHUGART >FIRST=MATTHEW SÃ¸BERG DATE=DECEMBER 2005 JOURNAL=FRENCH POLITICS ISSUE=3 ISSN=1476-3427 DOI=10.1057/PALGRAVE.FP.8200087 QUOTE=ONLY IN LATIN AMERICA HAVE ALL NEW DEMOCRACIES RETAINED A PURE PRESIDENTIAL FORM, EXCEPT FOR PERU (PRESIDENT-PARLIAMENTARY) AND BOLIVIA (ASSEMBLY-INDEPENDENT). REF=HARV, President of Peru>President| leader_name1 = MartÃ­n VizcarraVice President of Peru>Vice President| leader_name2 = Mercedes ArÃ¡ozPrime Minister of Peru>Prime Minister| leader_name4 = Salvador del SolarCongress of the Republic of Peru>Congress of the RepublicPeruvian War of Independence>IndependenceHistory of Spain (1814-1873)>Kingdom of SpainPeruvian War of Independence>Declared| established_date1 = 28 July 1821Battle of Ayacucho>Consolidated| established_date2 = 9 December 1824| established_event3 = Recognized| established_date3 = 14 August 1879| area_km2 = 1,285,216| area_rank = 19th| area_sq_mi = 496,225 | percent_water = 0.41 TRANS-TITLE=PERU: ESTIMATES AND PROJECTIONS OF TOTAL POPULATION, BY CALENDAR YEARS AND SIMPLE AGES, 1950-2050DATE=SEPTEMBER 2009LANGUAGE=SPANISH, | population_census = 31,237,385| population_estimate_year = 2019| population_estimate_rank = 41st| population_census_year = 2017| population_density_km2 = 23 | population_density_sq_mi = 57 | population_density_rank = 198thPUBLISHER=INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND, | GDP_PPP_year = 2019| GDP_PPP_rank = 36th| GDP_PPP_per_capita = $14,252| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 85th| GDP_nominal = $239.218 billion| GDP_nominal_year = 2019| GDP_nominal_rank = 41st| GDP_nominal_per_capita = $7,118| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 80th| Gini = 43.3 | Gini_year = 2017| Gini_change = decrease PUBLISHER=WORLD BANK, 6 April 2019, | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.750 | HDI_year = 2017 | HDI_change = increase YEAR=2018 PUBLISHER=UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME, | HDI_rank = 89thPeruvian sol>Sol| currency_code = PENTime in Peru>PET| utc_offset = âˆ’5Common Era>CE)| drives_on = right| calling_code = +51| iso3166code = PE| cctld = .pe| religion = {hide}Collapsible list
|title = List of religions|{{plainlist|
  • {{percent|17,635,339|23,196,391|2|pad=yes{edih} Roman Catholic
  • {{percent|4,286,541|23,196,391|2|pad=yes}} Protestant
  • â€”{{percent|3,264,819|23,196,391|2|pad=yes}} Evangelical
  • â€”{{percent|381,031|23,196,391|2|pad=yes}} Non-denominational Christian
  • â€”{{percent|353,430|23,196,391|2|pad=yes}} Adventist
  • â€”{{percent|173,602|23,196,391|2|pad=yes}} Jehovah's Witness
  • â€”{{percent|113,659|23,196,391|2|pad=yes}} Mormon
  • {{percent|1,180,361|23,196,391|2|pad=yes}} Non-religious
  • {{percent|94,150|23,196,391|2|pad=yes}} Others
}}}}2017 Peru Census>2017{{efn The question about religion included in the 2017 National Census was addressed to people aged 12 and over.}}| today = }}Peru ({{IPAc-en|audio=en-us-Peru.ogg|p|É™|Ëˆ|r|uË}}; {{IPA-es|peËˆÉ¾u|}}; {{IPA-qu|pÊ°ÉªÉ¾ÊŠw|}};Quechua name used by government of Peru is PerÃº (see Quechua-language version of Peru Parliament website {{webarchive|url= |date=30 July 2010 }} and Quechua-language version of Peru Constitution but common Quechua name is Piruw {{IPA-all|pÉªÉ¾ÊŠw|}}), officially the Republic of Peru ({{Audio-es|RepÃºblica del PerÃº|ES-pe - RepÃºblica del PerÃº.ogg}}), is a country in western South America]. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peru is a megadiverse country with habitats ranging from the arid plains of the Pacific coastal region in the west to the peaks of the Andes mountains vertically extending from the north to the southeast of the country to the tropical Amazon Basin rainforest in the east with the Amazon river.WEB,weblink PerÃº: PaÃ­s megadiverso, Peru: Megadiverse country, Servicio Nacional de Ãreas Naturales Protegidas, Spanish, PDF,weblink" title="">weblink 22 June 2014, Peruvian territory was home to several ancient cultures. Ranging from the Norte Chico civilization in the 32nd century BC, the oldest civilization in the Americas and one of the five cradles of civilization, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in pre-Columbian America, the territory now including Peru has one of the longest histories of civilization of any country, tracing its heritage back to the 4th millennia BCE.The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a viceroyalty that encompassed most of its South American colonies, with its capital in Lima. Peru formally proclaimed independence in 1821, and following the military campaigns of JosÃ© de San MartÃ­n and SimÃ³n BolÃ­var, and the decisive battle of Ayacucho, Peru completed its independence in 1824. In the ensuing years, the country enjoyed relative economic and political stability, which ended shortly before the War of the Pacific with Chile. Throughout the 20th century, Peru endured armed territorial disputes, coups, social unrest, and internal conflicts, as well as periods of stability and economic upswing. Alberto Fujimori was elected to the presidency in 1990; his government was credited with economically stabilizing Peru, a plan which he copied from the other candidate Mario Vargas Llosa, and successfully ending the Shining Path insurgency, despite not having any involvement in the action and displacing the GEIN (the group that captured the former lÃ­der Abimael GuzmÃ¡n, though he was widely accused of human rights violations and suppression of political dissent, specially after the own coup d'etat in 1992, which stablished a dictatorship around the Peruvian government, controlled by his followers. Fujimori left the presidency in 2000 after an scandalous discovery where his first assessor, Vladimiro Montesinos, was filmed while bribing different politicians, and was charged with human rights violations and imprisoned until his pardon by President Pedro Pablo Kuczynski in 2017. Even after the president's regime, Fujimori's followers, called Fujimoristas, have caused political turmoil for any opposing faction in power, even causing Pedro Pablo Kuczynski to resign in March 2018.The sovereign state of Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is classified as an emerging marketWEB, World Economic and Financial Surveys, World Economic Outlook October 2015,weblink, with a high level of human development and an upper middle income level with a poverty rate around 19 percent.WEB,weblink Peru Overview, World Bank, 17 April 2017, It is one of the region's most prosperous economies with an average growth rate of 5.9% and it has one of the world's fastest industrial growth rates at an average of 9.6%.WEB,weblink Peru, The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 8 January 2018,weblink 7 July 2018, dead, Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing; along with other growing sectors such as telecommunications and biotechnology.WEB,weblink MÃ³dulo de capacitaciÃ³n en recursos genÃ©ticos y bioseguridad, Training module on genetic resources and biosafety, Ministry of Environment (Peru), Ministerio de Ambiente de la RepÃºblica de PerÃº, David E. Castro Garro, Spanish, PDF,weblink" title="">weblink 24 April 2018, The country forms part of The Pacific Pumas, a political and economic grouping of countries along Latin America's Pacific coast that share common trends of positive growth, stable macroeconomic foundations, improved governance and an openness to global integration. Peru ranks high in social freedom;"Freedom in the World 2017 â€“ Populists and Autocrats: The Dual Threat to Global Democracy" by Freedom House, 31 January 2017 it is an active member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, the Pacific Alliance, the Trans-Pacific Partnership and the World Trade Organization; and is considered as a middle power.BOOK, McKercher, B. J. C., Routledge Handbook of Diplomacy and Statecraft, 2012, Routledge, 9781136664366,weblink en, a Middle Power like Peru lack the diplomatic and other resources..., Peru has a population of 32 million, which includes Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other indigenous languages. This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music.{{TOC limit|3}}


The name of the country may be derived from BirÃº, the name of a local ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama City, in the early 16th century.Porras Barrenechea, RaÃºl. El nombre del PerÃº. Lima: Talleres GrÃ¡ficos P.L. Villanueva, 1968, p. 83. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans.RaÃºl Porras Barrenechea, El nombre del PerÃº, p. 84. Thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated BirÃº or PerÃº.RaÃºl Porras Barrenechea, El nombre del PerÃº, p. 86.An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, son of an Inca princess and a conquistador. He said the name BirÃº was that of a common Indian happened upon by the crew of a ship on an exploratory mission for governor Pedro Arias de Ãvila, and went on to relate more instances of misunderstandings due to the lack of a common language.Vega, Garcilasco, Commentarios Reales de los Incas, Editorial Mantaro, Lima, ed. 1998. pp. 14â€“15. First published in Lisbon in 1609.The Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 CapitulaciÃ³n de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru.RaÃºl Porras Barrenechea, El nombre del PerÃº, p. 87. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, which became Republic of Peru after independence.


{{see also|Cultural periods of Peru|Agricultural history of Peru|Economic history of Peru }}

Prehistory and pre-Columbian period

File:Nazca colibri.jpg|alt=|left|thumb|The Hummingbird of the Nazca LinesNazca LinesThe earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such as irrigation and terracing; camelid husbandry and fishing were also important. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money. The oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal and Andean regions throughout Peru. The Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BCJOURNAL, 10.2307/971715, 971715, Archaism or Tradition?: The Decapitation Theme in Cupisnique and Moche Iconography, Cordy-Collins, Alana, 3, 3, 1992, 206â€“220, Latin American Antiquity, along what is now Peru's Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture.File:Moche portrait ceramic Quai Branly 71.1930.19.162 n2.jpg|thumb|upright|A Moche ceramic vessel from the 5th century depicting a man's head.]]File:Machu Picchu, Peru.jpg|thumb|The sanctuary of Machu PicchuMachu PicchuThe ChavÃ­n culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, with their religious centre in ChavÃ­n de Huantar.UNESCO Chavin (Archaeological Site) {{webarchive |url= |date=8 May 2016 }}. Retrieved 27 July 2014 After the decline of the Chavin culture around the beginning of the 1st century AD, a series of localized and specialized cultures rose and fell, both on the coast and in the highlands, during the next thousand years. On the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. The Mochica, who reached their apogee in the first millennium AD, were renowned for their irrigation system which fertilized their arid terrain, their sophisticated ceramic pottery, their lofty buildings, and clever metalwork. The Chimu were the great city builders of pre-Inca civilization; as loose confederation of cities scattered along the coast of northern Peru, the Chimu flourished from about 1140 to 1450. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo. In the highlands, both the Tiahuanaco culture, near Lake Titicaca in both Peru and Bolivia, and the Wari culture, near the present-day city of Ayacucho, developed large urban settlements and wide-ranging state systems between 500 and 1000 AD.Pre-Inca Cultures {{webarchive |url= |date=3 November 2016 }}. the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco. The Incas of Cusco originally represented one of the small and relatively minor ethnic groups, the Quechuas. Gradually, as early as the thirteenth century, they began to expand and incorporate their neighbors. Inca expansion was slow until about the middle of the fifteenth century, when the pace of conquest began to accelerate, particularly under the rule of the emperor Pachacuti. Under his rule and that of his son, Topa Inca Yupanqui, the Incas came to control most of the Andean region, with a population of 9 to 16 million inhabitants under their rule. Pachacuti also promulgated a comprehensive code of laws to govern his far-flung empire, while consolidating his absolute temporal and spiritual authority as the God of the Sun who ruled from a magnificently rebuilt Cusco.Peru The Incas {{webarchive |url= |date=3 November 2016 }} From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used a variety of methods, from conquest to peaceful assimilation, to incorporate a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean mountain ranges, from southern Colombia to northern Chile, between the Pacific Ocean in the west and the Amazon rainforest in the east. The official language of the empire was Quechua, although hundreds of local languages and dialects were spoken. The Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu which can be translated as "The Four Regions" or "The Four United Provinces." Many local forms of worship persisted in the empire, most of them concerning local sacred Huacas, but the Inca leadership encouraged the worship of Inti, the sun god and imposed its sovereignty above other cults such as that of Pachamama.The Inca â€“ All Empires {{webarchive |url= |date=20 January 2012 }} The Incas considered their King, the Sapa Inca, to be the "child of the sun."weblink" title="">"The Inca" at the Wayback Machine (archived 10 November 2009) The National Foreign Language Center at the University of Maryland. 29 May 2007. Retrieved 27 July 2014.

Conquest and colonial period

Atahualpa (also Atahuallpa), the last Sapa Inca, became emperor when he defeated and executed his older half-brother HuÃ¡scar in a civil war sparked by the death of their father, Inca Huayna Capac. In December 1532, a party of conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro defeated and captured the Inca Emperor Atahualpa in the Battle of Cajamarca. The Spanish conquest of Peru was one of the most important campaigns in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. After years of preliminary exploration and military conflicts, it was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting but ended in Spanish victory and colonization of the region known as the Viceroyalty of Peru with its capital at Lima, which became known as "The City of Kings". The conquest of Peru led to spin-off campaigns throughout the viceroyalty as well as expeditions towards the Amazon Basin as in the case of Spanish efforts to quell Amerindian resistance. The last Inca resistance was suppressed when the Spaniards annihilated the Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba in 1572.The indigenous population dramatically collapsed due to exploitation, socioeconomic change and epidemic diseases introduced by the Spanish.JOURNAL, 10.1111/j.1467-8306.1992.tb01968.x, 2563354, Lovell, W. George, 1992, 'Heavy Shadows and Black Night': Disease and Depopulation in Colonial Spanish America, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 82, 3, 426â€“443, Viceroy Francisco de Toledo reorganized the country in the 1570s with gold and silver mining as its main economic activity and Amerindian forced labor as its primary workforce. With the discovery of the great silver and gold lodes at PotosÃ­ (present-day Bolivia) and Huancavelica, the viceroyalty flourished as an important provider of mineral resources. Peruvian bullion provided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and the Philippines. Because of lack of available work force, African slaves were added to the labor population. The expansion of a colonial administrative apparatus and bureaucracy paralleled the economic reorganization. With the conquest started the spread of Christianity in South America; most people were forcefully converted to Catholicism, taking only a generation to convert the population. They built churches in every city and replaced some of the Inca temples with churches, such as the Coricancha in the city of Cusco. The church employed the Inquisition, making use of torture to ensure that newly converted Catholics did not stray to other religions or beliefs. Peruvian Catholicism follows the syncretism found in many Latin American countries, in which religious native rituals have been integrated with Christian celebrations.Conquest and Colony of Peru.WEB,weblink Archived copy, 28 July 2014, live,weblink" title="">weblink 18 August 2016, . Retrieved 28 July 2014 In this endeavor, the church came to play an important role in the acculturation of the natives, drawing them into the cultural orbit of the Spanish settlers.File:Exploring Cuscoâ€¦Plaza de armas, Centro Historico (8443408703).jpg|left|thumb|CuscoCuscoBy the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income. In response, the Crown enacted the Bourbon Reforms, a series of edicts that increased taxes and partitioned the Viceroyalty. The new laws provoked TÃºpac Amaru II's rebellion and other revolts, all of which were suppressed. As a result of these and other changes, the Spaniards and their creole successors came to monopolize control over the land, seizing many of the best lands abandoned by the massive native depopulation. However, the Spanish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian. The Treaty of Tordesillas was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while Spain controlled Portugal. The need to ease communication and trade with Spain led to the split of the viceroyalty and the creation of new viceroyalties of New Granada and Rio de la Plata at the expense of the territories that formed the Viceroyalty of Peru; this reduced the power, prominence and importance of Lima as the viceroyal capital and shifted the lucrative Andean trade to Buenos Aires and BogotÃ¡, while the fall of the mining and textile production accelerated the progressive decay of the Viceroyalty of Peru.File:BasÃ­lica Catedral Metropolitana de Lima.jpg|thumb|Main faÃ§ade of the Cathedral of Lima and the Archbishop's palaceArchbishop's palaceEventually, the viceroyalty would dissolve, as with much of the Spanish empire, when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the nineteenth century. These movements led to the formation of the majority of modern-day countries of South America in the territories that at one point or another had constituted the Viceroyalty of Peru.Peru Peru {{webarchive |url= |date=3 November 2016 }}. Retrieved 27 July 2014. The conquest and colony brought a mix of cultures and ethnicities that did not exist before the Spanish conquered the Peruvian territory. Even though many of the Inca traditions were lost or diluted, new customs, traditions and knowledge were added, creating a rich mixed Peruvian culture. Two of the most important indigenous rebellions against the Spanish were that of Juan Santos Atahualpa in 1742, and Rebellion of TÃºpac Amaru II in 1780 around the highlands near Cuzco.ENCYCLOPEDIA, TÃºpac Amaru II,weblink EncyclopÃ¦dia Britannica,


File:BattleofAyacucho.jpg|thumb|The alt=|220x220pxIn the early 19th century, while most South American nations were swept by wars of independence, Peru remained a royalist stronghold. As the elite vacillated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish Monarchy, independence was achieved only after the occupation by military campaigns of JosÃ© de San MartÃ­n and SimÃ³n BolÃ­var.The economic crises, the loss of power of Spain in Europe, the war of independence in North America and native uprisings all contributed to a favorable climate to the development of emancipating ideas among the Criollo population in South America. However, the Criollo oligarchy in Peru enjoyed privileges and remained loyal to the Spanish Crown. The liberation movement started in Argentina where autonomous juntas were created as a result of the loss of authority of the Spanish government over its colonies.After fighting for the independence of the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata, JosÃ© de San MartÃ­n created the Army of the Andes and crossed the Andes in 21 days, one of the greatest accomplishments in military history. Once in Chile he joined forces with Chilean army General Bernardo O'Higgins and liberated the country in the battles of Chacabuco and MaipÃº in 1818.Scheina, 2003, Latin America's Wars: The Age of the Caudillo, 1791â€“1899, p. 58. On 7 September 1820, a fleet of eight warships arrived in the port of Paracas under the command of general JosÃ© de San Martin and Thomas Cochrane, who was serving in the Chilean Navy. Immediately on 26 October they took control of the town of Pisco. San Martin settled in Huacho on 12 November, where he established his headquarters while Cochrane sailed north blockading the port of Callao in Lima. At the same time in the north, Guayaquil was occupied by rebel forces under the command of Gregorio Escobedo. Because Peru was the stronghold of the Spanish government in South America, San Martin's strategy to liberate Peru was to use diplomacy. He sent representatives to Lima urging the Viceroy that Peru be granted independence, however all negotiations proved unsuccessful.File:Congreso_1822.jpg|thumb|left|First Constituent Congress of Peru in the chapel of the National University of San MarcosNational University of San MarcosThe Viceroy of Peru, JoaquÃ­n de la Pazuela named JosÃ© de la Serna commander-in-chief of the loyalist army to protect Lima from the threatened invasion of San Martin. On 29 January, de la Serna organized a coup against de la Pazuela which was recognized by Spain and he was named Viceroy of Peru. This internal power struggle contributed to the success of the liberating army. In order to avoid a military confrontation San Martin met the newly appointed viceroy, JosÃ© de la Serna, and proposed to create a constitutional monarchy, a proposal that was turned down. De la Serna abandoned the city and on 12 July 1821 San Martin occupied Lima and declared Peruvian independence on 28 July 1821. He created the first Peruvian flag. Alto Peru (Bolivia) remained as a Spanish stronghold until the army of SimÃ³n BolÃ­var liberated it three years later. JosÃ© de San Martin was declared Protector of Peru. Peruvian national identity was forged during this period, as Bolivarian projects for a Latin American Confederation floundered and a union with Bolivia proved ephemeral.Gootenberg (1991) p. 12.File:La Independencia del PerÃº.jpg|thumb|San MartÃ­n proclaiming the independence of Peru. Painting by alt=|220x220pxSimon Bolivar launched his campaign from the north liberating the Viceroyalty of New Granada in the Battles of Carabobo in 1821 and Pichincha a year later. In July 1822 Bolivar and San Martin gathered in the Guayaquil Conference. Bolivar was left in charge of fully liberating Peru while San Martin retired from politics after the first parliament was assembled. The newly founded Peruvian Congress named Bolivar dictator of Peru giving him the power to organize the military.With the help of Antonio JosÃ© de Sucre they defeated the larger Spanish army in the Battle of JunÃ­n on 6 August 1824 and the decisive Battle of Ayacucho on 9 December of the same year, consolidating the independence of Peru and Alto Peru. Alto Peru was later established as Bolivia. During the early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability.Discover Peru (Peru cultural society). War of Independence {{webarchive |url= |date=21 October 2016 }}. Retrieved 28 July 2014

19th century

File:Angamos2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|The Battle of Angamos, during the left|alt=From the 1840s to the 1860s, Peru enjoyed a period of stability under the presidency of RamÃ³n Castilla, through increased state revenues from guano exports.Gootenberg (1993) pp. 5â€“6. However, by the 1870s, these resources had been depleted, the country was heavily indebted, and political in-fighting was again on the rise.Gootenberg (1993) p. 9. Peru embarked on a railroad-building program that helped but also bankrupted the country.In 1879, Peru entered the War of the Pacific which lasted until 1884. Bolivia invoked its alliance with Peru against Chile. The Peruvian Government tried to mediate the dispute by sending a diplomatic team to negotiate with the Chilean government, but the committee concluded that war was inevitable. Chile declared war on 5 April 1879. Almost five years of war ended with the loss of the department of TarapacÃ¡ and the provinces of Tacna and Arica, in the Atacama region. Two outstanding military leaders throughout the war were Francisco Bolognesi and Miguel Grau. Originally Chile committed to a referendum for the cities of Arica and Tacna to be held years later, in order to self determine their national affiliation. However, Chile refused to apply the Treaty, and neither of the countries could determine the statutory framework. After the War of the Pacific, an extraordinary effort of rebuilding began. The government started to initiate a number of social and economic reforms in order to recover from the damage of the war. Political stability was achieved only in the early 1900s.

20th century

File:Protocolo de RÃ­o.jpg|thumb|The signing of the Rio ProtocolRio ProtocolInternal struggles after the war were followed by a period of stability under the Civilista Party, which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime of Augusto B. LeguÃ­a. The Great Depression caused the downfall of LeguÃ­a, renewed political turmoil, and the emergence of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA).KlarÃ©n, Peter (2000). Peru: society and nationhood in the Andes. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 262â€“276, {{ISBN|0195069285}}. The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for the following three decades. A final peace treaty in 1929, signed between Peru and Chile called the Treaty of Lima, returned Tacna to Peru. Between 1932 and 1933, Peru was engulfed in a year-long war with Colombia over a territorial dispute involving the Amazonas department and its capital Leticia.Later, in 1941, Peru and Ecuador fought the Ecuadorianâ€“Peruvian War, after which the Rio Protocol sought to formalize the boundary between those two countries. In a military coup on 29 October 1948, General Manuel A. OdrÃ­a became president. OdrÃ­a's presidency was known as the Ochenio. Momentarily pleasing the oligarchy and all others on the right, but followed a populist course that won him great favor with the poor and lower classes. A thriving economy allowed him to indulge in expensive but crowd-pleasing social policies. At the same time, however, civil rights were severely restricted and corruption was rampant throughout his regime. OdrÃ­a was succeeded by Manuel Prado Ugarteche. However, widespread allegations of fraud prompted the Peruvian military to depose Prado and install a military junta, led by Ricardo PÃ©rez Godoy. Godoy ran a short transitional government and held new elections in 1963, which were won by Fernando BelaÃºnde Terry who assumed presidency until 1968. BelaÃºnde was recognized for his commitment to the democratic process. In 1968, the Armed Forces, led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado, staged a coup against BelaÃºnde. Alvarado's regime undertook radical reforms aimed at fostering development, but failed to gain widespread support. In 1975, General Francisco Morales-BermÃºdez forcefully replaced Velasco, paralyzed reforms, and oversaw the reestablishment of democracy.File:Zonas donde se ha registrado actividad de Sendero Luminoso.png|thumb|left|Areas where the Shining PathShining PathPeru engaged in a brief successful conflict with Ecuador in the Paquisha War as a result of territorial dispute between the two countries. After the country experienced chronic inflation, the Peruvian currency, the sol, was replaced by the Inti in mid-1985, which itself was replaced by the nuevo sol in July 1991, at which time the new sol had a cumulative value of one billion old soles. The per capita annual income of Peruvians fell to $720 (below the level of 1960) and Peru's GDP dropped 20% at which national reserves were a negative $900 million. The economic turbulence of the time acerbated social tensions in Peru and partly contributed to the rise of violent rebel rural insurgent movements, like Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) and MRTA, which caused great havoc throughout the country. Concerned about the economy, the increasing terrorist threat from Sendero Luminoso and MRTA, and allegations of official corruption, Alberto Fujimori assumed presidency in 1990. Fujimori implemented drastic measures that caused inflation to drop from 7,650% in 1990 to 139% in 1991.{{citation needed|date=February 2019}}Faced with opposition to his reform efforts, Fujimori dissolved Congress in the auto-golpe ("self-coup") of 5 April 1992. He then revised the constitution; called new congressional elections; and implemented substantial economic reform, including privatization of numerous state-owned companies, creation of an investment-friendly climate, and sound management of the economy. Fujimori's administration was dogged by insurgent groups, most notably the Sendero Luminoso, who carried out terrorist campaigns across the country throughout the 1980s and 1990s. Fujimori cracked down on the insurgents and was successful in largely quelling them by the late 1990s, but the fight was marred by atrocities committed by both the Peruvian security forces and the insurgents: the Barrios Altos massacre and La Cantuta massacre by Government paramilitary groups, and the bombings of Tarata and Frecuencia Latina by Sendero Luminoso. Those incidents subsequently came to symbolize the human rights violations committed in the last years of violence.{{citation needed|date=February 2019}}During early 1995, once again Peru and Ecuador clashed in the Cenepa War, but in 1998 the governments of both nations signed a peace treaty that clearly demarcated the international boundary between them. In November 2000, Fujimori resigned from office and went into a self-imposed exile, avoiding prosecution for human rights violations and corruption charges by the new Peruvian authorities.

21st century

Since the end of the Fujimori regime, Peru has tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth.The Economist (17 October 2007), weblink" title="">Peru. In spite of human rights progress since the time of insurgency, many problems are still visible and show the continued marginalization of those who suffered through the violence of the Peruvian conflict.JOURNAL, White, Gavin David, 2009, Displacement, decentralisation and reparation in post-conflict Perujournal=Forced Migration Review, A caretaker government presided over by ValentÃ­n Paniagua took on the responsibility of conducting new presidential and congressional elections. Afterwards Alejandro Toledo became president in 2001 to 2006.On 28 July 2006 former president Alan GarcÃ­a became President of Peru after winning the 2006 elections. In May 2008, Peru became a member of the Union of South American Nations. In April 2009 former president Alberto Fujimori was convicted of human rights violations and sentenced to 25 years in prison for his role in killings and kidnappings by the Grupo Colina death squad during his government's battle against leftist guerrillas in the 1990s.NEWS, Peru's Fujimori sentenced to 25 years prison,weblink Reuters, 7 April 2009, On 5 June 2011, Ollanta Humala was elected president. During his presidency, Prime Minister Ana Jara and her cabinet were successfully censured, which was the first time in 50 years that a cabinet had been forced to resign from the Peruvian legislature.NEWS, Staff writer, 31 March 2015, Peru's Prime Minister Ana Jara deposed over spy row,weblink BBC, BBC News, 19 August 2017, In 2016, Pedro Pablo Kuczynski was elected, though his government was short lived as he resigned in 2018 amid various controversies surrounding his administration. Vice president MartÃ­n Vizcarra then assumed office in March 2018 with generally favorable approval ratings.NEWS,weblink Peru's Vizcarra Begins Presidency With 57 Pct Approval Rating, 15 April 2018, U.S. News & World Report, 16 April 2018,

Government and politics


Peru is a unitary presidential representative democratic republic with a multi-party system. Under the current constitution, the president is both head of state and government; he or she is elected for five years and cannot serve consecutive terms.ConstituciÃ³n PolÃ­tica del PerÃº, Article No. 112. The president designates the Prime Minister and, on his or her advice, the rest of the Council of Ministers.ConstituciÃ³n PolÃ­tica del PerÃº, Article No. 122. The Congress of the Republic is unicameral with 130 members elected for five-year terms.ConstituciÃ³n PolÃ­tica del PerÃº, Article No. 90. Bills may be proposed by either the executive or the legislative branch; they become law after being passed by Congress and promulgated by the president.ConstituciÃ³n PolÃ­tica del PerÃº, Articles No. 107â€“108. The judiciary is nominally independent,ConstituciÃ³n PolÃ­tica del PerÃº, Article No. 146. though political intervention into judicial matters has been common throughout history and arguably continues in modern day.Clark, Jeffrey. weblink" title="">Building on quicksand. Retrieved 24 July 2007.The Peruvian government is directly elected, and voting is compulsory for all citizens aged 18 to 70.ConstituciÃ³n PolÃ­tica del PerÃº, Article No. 31. Congress is currently composed of Fuerza Popular (59 seats), Peruanos Por el Kambio (17 seats), Frente Amplio (10 seats), New Peru (10 seats), Alianza para el Progreso (9 seats), AcciÃ³n Popular (5 seats) and APRA (5 seats) and 18 not grouped.{{es icon}} Congreso de la RepÃºblica del PerÃº, Grupos Parlamentarios {{webarchive |url= |date=29 December 2007 }}. Retrieved 27 August 2011.


The law of Peru includes the constitution, and a number of codes and decrees.

Foreign relations

File:Representantes_del_Grupo_de_Lima.jpg|thumb|Foreign ministers representing member states of the alt=Peruvian foreign relations have historically been dominated by border conflicts with neighboring countries, most of which were settled during the 20th century. Recently,{{when|date=January 2019}} Peru disputed its maritime limits with Chile in the Pacific Ocean.BBC News (4 November 2005), Peruâ€“Chile border row escalates {{webarchive |url= |date=15 January 2009 }}. Retrieved 16 May 2007. Peru is an active member of several regional blocs and one of the founders of the Andean Community of Nations. It is also a participant in international organizations such as the Organization of American States and the United Nations. Javier PÃ©rez de CuÃ©llar served as UN Secretary General from 1981 to 1991. Former President Fujimori's tainted re-election to a third term in June 2000 strained Peru's relations with the United States and with many Latin American and European countries, but relations improved with the installation of an interim government in November 2000 and the inauguration of Alejandro Toledo in July 2001 after free and fair elections.Peru is planning full integration into the Andean Free Trade Area. In addition, Peru is a standing member of APEC and the World Trade Organization, and is an active participant in negotiations toward a Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA).During the crisis in Bolivarian Venezuela, Peru participated in a leading role to help mediate the situation in Venezuela by being active within the Lima Group.

Military and law enforcement

File:Peruvian Navy Ceremony 2016.jpg|thumb|Aircraft and ships of the Peruvian NavyPeruvian NavyThe Peruvian Armed Forces are the military services of Peru, comprising independent Army, Navy and Air Force components. Their primary mission is to safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country. As a secondary mission they participate in economic and social development as well as in civil defense tasks.Ministerio de Defensa, Libro Blanco de la Defensa Nacional. Ministerio de Defensa, 2005, 90. Conscription was abolished in 1999 and replaced by voluntary military service.Ley NÂ° 27178, Ley del Servicio Militar, Articles No. 29, 42 and 45. The armed forces are subordinate to the Ministry of Defense and to the President as Commander-in-Chief.The National Police of Peru is often classified as a part of the armed forces. Although in fact it has a different organization and a wholly civil mission, its training and activities over more than two decades as an anti-terrorist force have produced markedly military characteristics, giving it the appearance of a virtual fourth military service with significant land, sea and air capabilities and approximately 140,000 personnel. The Peruvian armed forces report through the Ministry of Defense, while the National Police of Peru reports through the Ministry of Interior.

Administrative divisions

Peru is divided into 24 regions and the Constitutional Province of El Callao. Each region has an elected government composed of a president and council that serve four-year terms.Ley NÂ° 27867, Ley OrgÃ¡nica de Gobiernos Regionales, Article No. 11. These governments plan regional development, execute public investment projects, promote economic activities, and manage public property.Ley NÂ° 27867, Ley OrgÃ¡nica de Gobiernos Regionales, Article No. 10. The province of Lima is administered by a city council.Ley NÂ° 27867, Ley OrgÃ¡nica de Gobiernos Regionales, Article No. 66. The goal of devolving power to regional and municipal governments was among others to improve popular participation. NGOs played an important role in the decentralization process and still influence local politics.WEB, Mixed Feelings, Monika Huber, Wolfgang Kaiser,, February 2013,weblink {| class="wikitable" style="float: auto; text-align:right; font-size:90%; width:100%;"!colspan=10|Administrative divisions of Peru
!Departments! Capital!Area (kmÂ²)!Population (2017 census)!Density!Creation (File:Departments of Peru.svgcenter|Administrative divisions of Peru)---- Amazonas Chachapoyas, Peru>| 1832 ---- Ancash Huaraz 35 914,81 1 083 519 30,2 1821---- ApurÃ­mac Abancay 20 895,79 405 759 19,4 1873---- Arequipa Arequipa 63 345,39 1 382 730 21,8 1822---- Ayacucho Ayacucho 43 814,80 616 176 14,1 1822---- Cajamarca Cajamarca 33 317,54 1 341 012 40,3 1962---- Constitutional Province of Callao Callao 146,98 994 494 6815,8 1857---- Cusco Cusco 71 986,50 1 205 527 16,7 1822---- Huancavelica Huancavelica 22 131,47 347 639 15,7 1822---- HuÃ¡nuco HuÃ¡nuco 36 848,85 721 047 19,3 1869---- Ica Ica, Peru>| 1866---- JunÃ­n Huancayo 44 197,23 1 246 038 32,4 1825---- La Libertad Trujillo (PerÃº)>| 1821---- Lambayeque Chiclayo 14 231,3 1 197 260 82,8 1874 ---- Lima Lima 34 801,59 9 485 405 242,4 1821---- Loreto Iquitos 368 851,95 883 510 2,4 1866---- Madre de Dios Puerto Maldonado 85 300,54 141 70 1,7 1912---- Moquegua Moquegua 15 733,97 174 863 11,1 1837---- Pasco Cerro de Pasco 25 319,59 254 065 10,2 1944---- Piura Piura 35 892,49 1 856 809 52,1 1861---- Puno Puno 71 999,00 1 172 697 17,5 1822---- San MartÃ­n Moyobamba 51 253,31 813 381 15,9 1906---- Tacna Tacna 16 075,89 329 332 20,5 1875---- Tumbes Tumbes, Peru>| 1942---- Ucayali Pucallpa 102 410,55 496 459 4,9 1980---- Peru Lima 1 285 216,20 31 237 385 25,02 1821

Metropolitan areas

{{See also|List of metropolitan areas of Peru}}Several metropolitan areas are defined for Peru â€“ these overlap the district areas, and have limited authority. The largest of them, the Lima metropolitan area, is the seventh-largest metropolis in the Americas.


{{Multiple image| align = | direction = vertical| width = 170| image1 = Manu riverbank.jpg| caption1 = | image2 = Alpamayo.jpg| caption2 = | image3 = Paracas National Reserve. Ica, Peru.jpgManÃº National Park in the Peruvian Amazon>Amazon, the mountain peak Alpamayo and Paracas National Reserve.}}Peru is located on the central western coast of South America facing the Pacific Ocean. It lies wholly in the Southern Hemisphere, its northernmost extreme reaching to 1.8 minutes of latitude or about 3.3 kilometres (2.1 mi) south of the equator, covers {{convert|1285216|kmÂ²|sqmi|0|abbr=on}} of western South America. It borders Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. The Andes mountains run parallel to the Pacific Ocean; they define the three regions traditionally used to describe the country geographically.The costa (coast), to the west, is a narrow plain, largely arid except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. The sierra (highlands) is the region of the Andes; it includes the Altiplano plateau as well as the highest peak of the country, the {{convert|6768|m|ft|0|abbr=on|adj=on}} HuascarÃ¡n.Andes Handbook, HuascarÃ¡n {{webarchive|url= |date=8 October 2016 }}. 2 June 2002. The third region is the selva (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by the Amazon rainforest that extends east. Almost 60 percent of the country's area is located within this region.Instituto de Estudios HistÃ³ricoâ€“MarÃ­timos del PerÃº, El PerÃº y sus recursos: Atlas geogrÃ¡fico y econÃ³mico, p. 16. The country has fifty-four hydrographic basins, fifty-two of which are small coastal basins that discharge their waters into the Pacific Ocean. The other two are the Amazon basin, which empties into the Atlantic Ocean, and the endorheic basin of Lake Titicaca, both delimited by the Andes mountain range. In the second of these basins, the giant Amazon River begins, which, with its 6872 km, is the longest river in the world, with 75% of the Peruvian territory. Peru contains 4% of the planet's fresh water.Most Peruvian rivers originate in the peaks of the Andes and drain into one of three basins. Those that drain toward the Pacific Ocean are steep and short, flowing only intermittently. Tributaries of the Amazon River have a much larger flow, and are longer and less steep once they exit the sierra. Rivers that drain into Lake Titicaca are generally short and have a large flow.Instituto de Estudios HistÃ³ricoâ€“MarÃ­timos del PerÃº, El PerÃº y sus recursos: Atlas geogrÃ¡fico y econÃ³mico, p. 31. Peru's longest rivers are the Ucayali, the MaraÃ±Ã³n, the Putumayo, the YavarÃ­, the Huallaga, the Urubamba, the Mantaro, and the Amazon.Instituto Nacional de EstadÃ­stica e InformÃ¡tica, PerÃº: Compendio EstadÃ­stico 2005, p. 21.The largest lake in Peru, Lake Titicaca between Peru and Bolivia high in the Andes, is also the largest of South America.JOURNAL, 2003, Application of Strontium Isotopes to Understanding the Hydrology and Paleohydrology of the Altiplano, Bolivia-Peru, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 194, 281â€“297, 10.1016/S0031-0182(03)00282-7, Grove, Matthew J, Baker, Paul A, Cross, Scott L, Rigsby, Catherine A, Seltzer, Geoffrey O, The largest reservoirs, all in the coastal region of Peru, are the Poechos, Tinajones, San Lorenzo, and El Fraile reservoirs.WEB, Oficina nacional de evaluaciÃ³n de recursos naturales (previous INRENA), Inventario nacional de lagunas y represamientos, INRENA,weblink 3 March 2008, dead,weblink" title="">weblink 25 June 2007,


File:Koppen-Geiger Map PER present.svg|thumb|Map of KÃ¶ppen climate classificationKÃ¶ppen climate classificationThe combination of tropical latitude, mountain ranges, topography variations, and two ocean currents (Humboldt and El NiÃ±o) gives Peru a large diversity of climates. The coastal region has moderate temperatures, low precipitation, and high humidity, except for its warmer, wetter northern reaches.Instituto de Estudios HistÃ³ricoâ€“MarÃ­timos del PerÃº, El PerÃº y sus recursos: Atlas geogrÃ¡fico y econÃ³mico, pp. 24â€“25. In the mountain region, rain is frequent in summer, and temperature and humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes.Instituto de Estudios HistÃ³ricoâ€“MarÃ­timos del PerÃº, El PerÃº y sus recursos: Atlas geogrÃ¡fico y econÃ³mico, pp. 25â€“26. The Peruvian Amazon is characterized by heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southernmost part, which has cold winters and seasonal rainfall.Instituto de Estudios HistÃ³ricoâ€“MarÃ­timos del PerÃº, El PerÃº y sus recursos: Atlas geogrÃ¡fico y econÃ³mico, pp. 26â€“27.


Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has a high biodiversity with 21,462 species of plants and animals reported as of 2003, 5,855 of them endemic,Instituto Nacional de EstadÃ­stica e InformÃ¡tica, PerÃº: Compendio EstadÃ­stico 2005, p. 50. and is one of the megadiverse countries.Peru has over 1,800 species of birds (120 endemic), and 500 species of mammals and over 300 species of reptiles.WEB,weblink Peru Wildlife Information, The hundreds of mammals include rare species like the puma, jaguar and spectacled bear. The Birds of Peru produce large amounts of guano, an economically important export. The Pacific holds large quantities of sea bass, flounder, anchovies, tuna, crustaceans, and shellfish, and is home to many sharks, sperm whales, and whales.WEB,weblink Peru: Wildlife, Select Latin America, 16 September 2009,weblink" title="">weblink 26 February 2010, Peru also has an equally diverse flora. The coastal deserts produce little more than cacti, apart from hilly fog oases and river valleys that contain unique plant life.WEB, Dillon, Michael O., The solanaceae of the lomas formations of coastal Peru and Chile,weblink, 28 November 2016, The Highlands above the tree-line known as puna is home to bushes, cactus, drought-resistant plants such as ichu, and the largest species of bromeliad â€“ the spectacular Puya raimondii.The cloud-forest slopes of the Andes sustain moss, orchids, and bromeliads, and the Amazon rainforest is known for its variety of trees and canopy plants.{{Clear}}

Economy and infrastructure

{{multiple image| direction = vertical| align = right| width = 271| image1 = Lima - PerÃº.jpg| image2 = Puerto de Callao.jpgSan Isidro, Peru>San Isidro.| caption2 = The Callao seaport, Peru's main export outlet.}}The economy of Peru is the 48th largest in the world (ranked by Purchasing Power Parity),Peru {{webarchive |url= |date=5 November 2016 }}. CIA, The World Factbook and the income level is classified as upper middle by the World Bank.The World Bank, Data by country: Peru {{webarchive |url= |date=8 November 2016 }}. Retrieved on 1 October 2011. Peru is, {{As of|2011|lc=y}}, one of the world's fastest-growing economies owing to an economic boom experienced during the 2000s.BBC (31 July 2012), Peru country profile {{webarchive |url= |date=5 November 2016 }}. It has an above-average Human Development Index of 0.74 which has seen steady improvement over {{clarify span|the last 25 years.|reason=Which 25 years? The precise time period must be specified, because readers don't know when this statement was added to the article.|date=July 2019}}WEB, Human Development Reports, Peru,weblink, United Nations, en, 2016, Historically, the country's economic performance has been tied to exports, which provide hard currency to finance imports and external debt payments.Thorp, p. 4. Although they have provided substantial revenue, self-sustained growth and a more egalitarian distribution of income have proven elusive.Thorp, p. 321. According to 2015 data, 19.3% of its total population is poor, including 9% that lives in extreme poverty.WEB,weblink Overview, Inflation in 2012 was the lowest in Latin America at only 1.8%, but increased in 2013 as oil and commodity prices rose; {{As of|2014|lc=y}} it stands at 2.5%.WEB,weblink Peru and the IMF, International Monetary Fund, The unemployment rate has fallen steadily {{clarify span|in recent years,|must specify exactly which years are meant, since readers don't know when this statement was added to the article|date=July 2019}} and {{As of|2012|lc=y}} stands at 3.6%.Peruvian economic policy has varied widely over {{clarify span|the past decades.|must specify exactly which decades are meant, since readers don't know when this statement was added to the article|date=July 2019}} The 1968â€“1975 government of Juan Velasco Alvarado introduced radical reforms, which included agrarian reform, the expropriation of foreign companies, the introduction of an economic planning system, and the creation of a large state-owned sector. These measures failed to achieve their objectives of income redistribution and the end of economic dependence on developed nations.Thorp, pp. 318â€“319.Despite these results, most reforms were not reversed until the 1990s, when the liberalizing government of Alberto Fujimori ended price controls, protectionism, restrictions on foreign direct investment, and most state ownership of companies. Reforms have permitted sustained economic growth since 1993, except for a slump after the 1997 Asian financial crisis.{{es icon}} Banco Central de Reserva, Producto bruto interno por sectores productivos 1951â€“2006 {{webarchive |url= |date=9 September 2016 }}. Retrieved 27 December 2010.Services account for 53% of Peruvian gross domestic product, followed by manufacturing (22.3%), extractive industries (15%), and taxes (9.7%).2006 figures. {{es icon}} Banco Central de Reserva, Memoria 2006 {{webarchive |url= |date=9 September 2016 }}, p. 204. Retrieved 27 December 2010. Recent economic growth has been fueled by macroeconomic stability, improved terms of trade, and rising investment and consumption.{{es icon}} Banco Central de Reserva, Memoria 2006 {{webarchive |url= |date=9 September 2016 }}, pp. 15, 203. Retrieved 27 December 2010. Trade is expected to increase further after the implementation of a free trade agreement with the United States signed on 12 April 2006.Office of the U.S. Trade Representative, weblink" title="">United States and Peru Sign Trade Promotion Agreement, 12 April 2006. Retrieved 27 December 2010. Peru's main exports are copper, gold, zinc, textiles, and fish meal; its major trade partners are the United States, China, Brazil, and Chile.2006 figures. {{es icon}} Banco Central de Reserva, Memoria 2006 {{webarchive |url= |date=9 September 2016 }}, pp. 60â€“61. Retrieved 27 December 2010.



{{Largest cities of Peru}}

Ethnic groups

(File:Juan Mauricio Rugendas - Study for Limaâ€™s Main Square - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|Lima's main square, c. 1843. Throughout its history, Peruvian society has been diverse.)Peru is a multiethnic nation formed by successive waves of different peoples over five centuries. Amerindians inhabited Peruvian territory for several millennia before the Spanish Conquest in the 16th century; according to historian Noble David Cook, their population decreased from nearly 5â€“9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620 mainly because of infectious diseases.Cook, Noble David (1982) Demographic collapse: Indian Peru, 1520â€“1620. Cambridge University Press. p. 114. {{ISBN|0521239958}}.Spaniards and Africans arrived in large numbers under colonial rule, mixing widely with each other and with indigenous peoples. After independence, there was gradual immigration from England, France, Germany, and Italy.VÃ¡zquez, Mario (1970) "Immigration and mestizaje in nineteenth-century Peru", pp. 79â€“81 in Race and class in Latin America. Columbia Univ. Press. {{ISBN|0-231-03295-1}} Peru freed its black slaves in 1854."Peru apologises for abuse of African-origin citizens". BBC News. 29 November 2009 Chinese and Japanese arrived in the 1850s as laborers following the end of slavery, and have since become a major influence in Peruvian society, forming one of the largest populations of Asians in Latin America.MÃ¶rner, Magnus (1967), Race mixture in the history of Latin America, p. 131.


With about 31.2 million inhabitants, Peru is the fourth most populous country in South America.WEB, El PerÃº tiene una poblaciÃ³n de 31 millones 488 mil 625 habitantes, Peru has a population of 31 million 488 thousand 625 inhabitants,weblink, INEI, Spanish, 11 July 2016, The demographic growth rate of Peru declined from 2.6% to 1.6% between 1950 and 2000; with the population being expected to reach approximately 42 million in 2050.Instituto Nacional de EstadÃ­stica e InformÃ¡tica, PerÃº: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de PoblaciÃ³n, 1950â€“2050, pp. 37â€“38, 40. According to the 1940 Peruvian census, Peru had a population at the time of seven million residents.NEWS, First results of the Peruvian population census conducted last year,weblink The Peru Telegraph, 26 June 2018, {{As of|2007}}, 75.9% lived in urban areas and 24.1% in rural areas.Instituto Nacional de EstadÃ­stica e InformÃ¡tica, Perfil sociodemogrÃ¡fico del PerÃº, p. 13. Major cities include the Lima metropolitan area (home to over 9.8 million people), Arequipa, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Iquitos, Cusco, Chimbote, and Huancayo; all reported more than 250,000 inhabitants in the 2007 census.Instituto Nacional de EstadÃ­stica e InformÃ¡tica, Perfil sociodemogrÃ¡fico del PerÃº, p. 24. There are 15 uncontacted Amerindian tribes in Peru."weblink" title="">Isolated Peru tribe threatened by outsiders. 31 January 2012


File:Downtown Lima (3913099716).jpg|thumb|Casa de Osambela, headquarters of the Academia Peruana de la Lengua (APL) in LimaLimaAccording to the Peruvian Constitution of 1993, Peru's official languages are Spanish, Quechua, and other indigenous languages in areas where they are predominant. Spanish is spoken natively by 84.1% of the population and Quechua by 13%, Aymara by 1.7% while other languages are spoken by the remaining 1.2%.Spanish is used by the government and is the mainstream language of the country, which is used by the media and in educational systems and commerce. Amerindians who live in the Andean highlands speak Quechua and Aymara and are ethnically distinct from the diverse indigenous groups who live on the eastern side of the Andes and in the tropical lowlands adjacent to the Amazon basin. Peru's distinct geographical regions are mirrored in a language divide between the coast where Spanish is more predominant over the Amerindian languages, and the more diverse traditional Andean cultures of the mountains and highlands. The indigenous populations east of the Andes speak various languages and dialects. Some of these groups still adhere to traditional indigenous languages, while others have been almost completely assimilated into the Spanish language. There has been an increasing and organized effort to teach Quechua in public schools in the areas where Quechua is spoken. In the Peruvian Amazon, numerous indigenous languages are spoken, including AshÃ¡ninka, Bora, and Aguaruna.{{es icon}} {{webarchive |url= |date=7 October 2016 }} â€“ Aboriginal languages of Peru


File:Catedral de Arequipa.jpg|alt=|thumb|Arequipa Cathedral, ArequipaArequipaFile:Coricancha, Cusco, PerÃº, 2015-07-31, DD 68.JPG|thumb|Quri Kancha and the Convent of Santo Domingo]]Roman Catholicism has been the predominant faith in Peru for centuries, albeit with a high degree of syncretism with indigenous traditions. As of the 2017 census, 76% of the population over 12 years old described themselves as Catholic, 14.1% as Evangelical, 4.8% as Protestant, Jewish, Latter-day Saints, and Jehovah's Witness, and 5.1% as nonreligious.WEB,weblink PerÃº: Perfil SociodemogrÃ¡fico, 231, Instituto Nacional de EstadÃ­stica e InformÃ¡tica, Amerindian religious traditions continue to play a major role in the beliefs of Peruvians. Catholic festivities like Corpus Christi, Holy Week and Christmas sometimes blend with Amerindian traditions. Amerindian festivities from pre-Columbian remain widespread; Inti Raymi, an ancient Inca festival, is still celebrated, especially in rural communities.The majority of towns, cities, and villages have their own official church or cathedral and patron saint.


Peru's literacy rate is estimated at 92.9% as of 2007; this rate is lower in rural areas (80.3%) than in urban areas (96.3%).Instituto Nacional de EstadÃ­stica e InformÃ¡tica, Perfil sociodemogrÃ¡fico del PerÃº, p. 93. Primary and secondary education are compulsory and free in public schools.ConstituciÃ³n PolÃ­tica del PerÃº, Article No. 17.


Peru has a life expectancy of 75.0 years (72.4 for males and 77.7 for females) according to the latest data for the year 2016 from the World Bank.WEB,weblink Life expectancy at birth, total (years) {{!, Data||language=en-us|access-date=25 August 2018}}{{Clear}}{{Clear}}


Many of the Peruvian toponyms have indigenous sources. In the Andes communities of Ãncash, Cusco and Puno, Quechua or Aymara names are overwhelmingly predominant. Their Spanish-based orthography, however, is in conflict with the normalized alphabets of these languages. According to Article 20 of Decreto Supremo No 004-2016-MC (Supreme Decree) which approves the Regulations to Law 29735, published in the official newspaper El Peruano on 22 July 2016, adequate spellings of the toponyms in the normalized alphabets of the indigenous languages must progressively be proposed with the aim of standardizing the naming used by the National Geographic Institute (Instituto GeogrÃ¡fico Nacional, IGN). The National Geographic Institute realizes the necessary changes in the official maps of Peru.WEB,weblink Decreto Supremo que aprueba el Reglamento de la Ley NÂ° 29735, Ley que regula el uso, preservaciÃ³n, desarrollo, recuperaciÃ³n, fomento y difusiÃ³n de las lenguas originarias del PerÃº, Decreto Supremo NÂ° 004-2016-MC, 10 July 2017,


Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Amerindian traditions, though it has also been influenced by various Asian, African, and other European ethnic groups. Peruvian artistic traditions date back to the elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of Pre-Inca cultures. The Incas maintained these crafts and made architectural achievements including the construction of Machu Picchu. Baroque dominated colonial art, though modified by native traditions.Bailey, pp. 72â€“74.During this period, most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of the Cusco School are representative.Bailey, p. 263. Arts stagnated after independence until the emergence of Indigenismo in the early 20th century. Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has been eclectic and shaped by both foreign and local art currents.

Visual Arts


Pre-Columbian art

{{See also|Inca architecture}}File:A detail of the Raimondi Stela.png|thumb|left|A detail of the Raimondi StelaRaimondi StelaFile:Nariguera Moche2.JPG|thumb|Moche Nariguera depicting the Decapitator, gold with turquoise and chrysocollachrysocollaPeru's earliest artwork came from the Cupisnique culture, which was concentrated on the Pacific coast, and the ChavÃ­n culture, which was largely north of Lima between the Andean mountain ranges of the Cordillera Negra and the Cordillera Blanca. Decorative work from this era, approximately the 9th century BCE, was symbolic and religious in nature. The artists worked with gold, silver and ceramics to create a variety of sculpture and relief carvings. These civilizations were also known for their architecture and wood sculpture.Between the 9th century BC and the 2nd century CE, the Paracas Cavernas and Paracas Necropolis cultures developed on the south coast of Peru. Paracas Cavernas produced complex polychrome and monochrome ceramics with religious representations. Burials from the Paracas Necropolis also yielded weblink" title="">complex textiles, many produced with sophisticated geometric patterns.The 3rd century BCE saw the flowering of the urban culture, Moche, in the Lambayeque region. The Mochica culture produced impressive architectural works, such as the Huacas del Sol y de la Luna and the Huaca Rajada of SipÃ¡n. They were experts at cultivation in terraces and hydraulic engineering and produced original ceramics, textiles, pictorial and sculptural works.Another urban culture, the Wari civilization, flourished between the 8th and 12th centuries in Ayacucho. Their centralized town planning was extended to other areas, such as Pachacamac, Cajamarquilla and Wari Willka.File:Inca Quipu.jpg|thumb|left|250px|'Quipus' were recording devices fashioned from strings historically used by a number of cultures in the region of Andean South America.NEWS, Neuman, William, Untangling an Accounting Tool and an Ancient Inca Mystery,weblink January 2, 2016, New York TimesNew York TimesBetween the 9th and 13th centuries CE, the military urban Tiwanaku empire rose by the borders of Lake Titicaca. Centered around a city of the same name in modern-day Bolivia, the Tiwanaku introduced stone architecture and sculpture of a monumental type. These works of architecture and art were made possible by the Tiwanaku's developing bronze, which enabled them to make the necessary tools.Urban architecture reached a new height between the 14th and 15th centuries in the ChimÃº Culture. The ChimÃº built the city of Chan Chan in the valley of the Moche River, in La Libertad. The ChimÃº were skilled goldsmiths and created remarkable works of hydraulic engineering.The Inca Civilization, which united Peru under its hegemony in the centuries immediately preceding the Spanish conquest, incorporated into their own works a great part of the cultural legacy of the civilizations which preceded it. Important relics of their artwork and architecture can be seen in cities like Cusco, architectural remains like SacsahuamÃ¡n and Machu Picchu and stone pavements that united Cusco with the rest of the Inca Empire.

Colonial art

File:Anonymous, Cuzco School, Peru - The Virgin of the Pilgrims and Child - Google Art Project.jpg|upright|thumb|The Virgin of the Pilgrims and Child, Anonymous Colonial Cusco School painting, 18th century]]Peruvian sculpture and painting began to define themselves from the ateliers founded by monks, who were strongly influenced by the Sevillian Baroque School. In this context, the stalls of the Cathedral choir, the fountain of the Main Square of Lima both by Pedro de Noguera, and a great part of the colonial production were registered. The first center of art established by the Spanish was the Cuzco School that taught Quechua artists European painting styles. Diego Quispe Tito (1611â€“1681) was one of the first members of the Cuzco school and Marcos Zapata (1710â€“1773) was one of the last.Painting of this time reflected a synthesis of European and indigenous influences, as is evident in the portrait of prisoner Atahualpa, by D. de Mora or in the canvases of the Italians Mateo PÃ©rez de Alesio and Angelino Medoro, the Spaniards Francisco Bejarano and J. de Illescas and the Creole J. Rodriguez.During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Baroque Style also dominated the field of plastic arts.


{{multiple image| align = right| total_width = 220| image1 = Mario Vargas Llosa (crop 2).jpg| caption1 = Mario Vargas Llosa| image2 = Retrato del Inca Garcilaso de la Vega (10949628505).jpg| caption2 = Inca Garcilaso de la Vega}}The term Peruvian literature not only refers to literature produced in the independent Republic of Peru, but also to literature produced in the Viceroyalty of Peru during the country's colonial period, and to oral artistic forms created by diverse ethnic groups that existed in the area during the prehispanic period, such as the Quechua, the Aymara and the Chanka people.Peruvian literature is rooted in the oral traditions of pre-Columbian civilizations. Spaniards introduced writing in the 16th century; colonial literary expression included chronicles and religious literature. After independence, Costumbrism and Romanticism became the most common literary genres, as exemplified in the works of Ricardo Palma.Martin, "Literature, music and the visual arts, c. 1820â€“1870", pp. 37â€“39. The early 20th century's Indigenismo movement was led by such writers as Ciro AlegrÃ­aMartin, "Narrative since c. 1920", pp. 151â€“152. and JosÃ© MarÃ­a Arguedas.Martin, "Narrative since c. 1920", pp. 178â€“179. CÃ©sar Vallejo wrote modernist and often politically engaged verse. Modern Peruvian literature is recognized thanks to authors such as Nobel laureate Mario Vargas Llosa, a leading member of the Latin American Boom.Martin, "Narrative since c. 1920", pp. 186â€“188.File:Ceviche de caballa.JPG|alt=|thumb|CevicheCeviche


Due to the Spanish expedition and discovery of the Americas, the explorers started the Columbian Exchange which included food unheard of in the Old World, such as potato, tomato, and maize. Modern indigenous Peruvian food mainly consists of corn, potatoes, and chilies. There are now more than 3,000 kinds of potatoes grown on Peruvian terrain, according to Peru's Instituto Peruano de la Papa.WEB,weblink 7 Things You Need to Know about Peruvian Cuisine, MICHELIN Guide, Modern Peruvian cuisine blends Amerindian and Spanish food with strong influences from Chinese, African, Arab, Italian, and Japanese cooking.Custer, pp. 17â€“22. Common dishes include anticuchos, ceviche, and pachamanca. Peru's varied climate allows the growth of diverse plants and animals good for cooking.Custer, pp. 25â€“38. Peru's diversity of ingredients and cooking techniques is receiving worldwide acclaim.weblink" title="">Embassy of Peru in the United States, The Peruvian cuisine reflects local practices and ingredientsâ€”including influences from the indigenous population including the Inca and cuisines brought in with colonizers and immigrants. Without the familiar ingredients from their home countries, immigrants modified their traditional cuisines by using ingredients available in Peru. The four traditional staples of Peruvian cuisine are corn, potatoes and other tubers, Amaranthaceaes (quinoa, kaÃ±iwa and kiwicha) and legumes (beans and lupins). Staples brought by the Spanish include rice, wheat and meats (beef, pork and chicken). Many traditional foodsâ€”such as quinoa, kiwicha, chili peppers, and several roots and tubers have increased in popularity in recent decades, reflecting a revival of interest in native Peruvian foods and culinary techniques. Chef Gaston Acurio has become well known for raising awareness of local ingredients.


File:Marinera_NorteÃ±a.jpg|thumb|MarineraMarineraPeruvian music has Andean, Spanish, and African roots.Romero, RaÃºl (1999). "Andean Peru". In: John Schechter (ed.), Music in Latin American culture: regional tradition. New York: Schirmer Books, pp. 385â€“386. In pre-Hispanic times, musical expressions varied widely in each region; the quena and the tinya were two common instruments. Spaniards introduced new instruments, such as the guitar and the harp, which led to the development of crossbred instruments like the charango. African contributions to Peruvian music include its rhythms and the cajÃ³n, a percussion instrument. Peruvian folk dances include marinera, tondero, zamacueca, diablada and huayno.Romero, RaÃºl (1985). "La mÃºsica tradicional y popular". In: Patronato Popular y Porvenir, La mÃºsica en el PerÃº. Lima: Industrial GrÃ¡fica, pp. pp. 243â€“245, 261â€“265.Peruvian music is dominated by the national instrument, the charango. The charango is member of the lute family of instruments and was invented during colonial times by musicians imitating the Spanish vihuela. In the Canas and Titicaca regions, the charango is used in courtship rituals, symbolically invoking mermaids with the instrument to lure the woman to the male performers. Until the 1960s, the charango was denigrated as an instrument of the rural poor. After the revolution in 1959, which built upon the Indigenismo movement (1910â€“1940), the charango was popularized among other performers. Variants include the walaycho, chillador, chinlili, and the larger and lower-tuned charangon.While the Spanish guitar is widely played, so too is the Spanish-in-origin bandurria. Unlike the guitar, it has been transformed by Peruvian players over the years, changing from a 12-string, 6-course instrument to one having 12 to 16 strings in a mere four courses. Violins and harps, also of European origin, are also played.



See also

Notes and references

. London: Thames and Hudson, {{ISBN|0500203563}}, pp. 76â€“77, 145â€“146.Mayer, Enrique (2002). The articulated peasant: household economies in the Andes. Boulder: Westview, {{ISBN|081333716X}}, pp. 47â€“68Olsen, Dale (2002). Music of El Dorado: the ethnomusicology of ancient South American cultures. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, {{ISBN|0813029201}}, pp. 17â€“22.O'Phelan, Scarlett (1985). Rebellions and revolts in eighteenth century Peru and Upper Peru. Cologne: BÃ¶hlau, {{ISBN|3412010855}}, 9783412010850, p. 276.Sheahan, John. Searching for a better society: the Peruvian economy from 1950. University Park, Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999, {{ISBN|0271018720}}, p. 157.{{es icon}} SuÃ¡rez, Margarita. weblink" title="">DesafÃ­os transatlÃ¡nticos. Lima: FCE/IFEA/PUCP, 2001, pp. 252â€“253.Turino, Thomas (1993). "Charango". In: Stanley Sadie (ed.), The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. New York: MacMillan Press Limited, vol. I, {{ISBN|0333378784}}, p. 340.}}


  • Bailey, Gauvin Alexander. Art of colonial Latin America. London: Phaidon, 2005, {{ISBN|0714841579}}.
  • weblink" title="">ConstituciÃ³n PolÃ­tica del PerÃº. 29 December 1993.
  • Custer, Tony. The Art of Peruvian Cuisine. Lima: Ediciones Ganesha, 2003, {{ISBN|9972920305}}.
  • Garland, Gonzalo. "PerÃº Siglo XXI", series of 11 working papers describing sectorial long-term forecasts, Grade, Lima, Peru, 1986â€“1987.
  • Gootenberg, Paul. (1991) Between silver and guano: commercial policy and the state in postindependence Peru. Princeton: Princeton University Press {{ISBN|0691023425}}.
  • Gootenberg, Paul. (1993) Imagining development: economic ideas in Peru's "fictitious prosperity" of Guano, 1840â€“1880. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993, 0520082907.
  • Instituto de Estudios HistÃ³ricoâ€“MarÃ­timos del PerÃº. El PerÃº y sus recursos: Atlas geogrÃ¡fico y econÃ³mico. Lima: Auge, 1996.
  • Instituto Nacional de EstadÃ­stica e InformÃ¡tica. WEB,weblinkweblink" title="">weblink dead, 7 March 2007, PerÃº: Compendio EstadÃ­stico 2005,  {{small|(8.31 MB)}}. Lima: INEI, 2005.
  • Instituto Nacional de EstadÃ­stica e InformÃ¡tica. Perfil sociodemogrÃ¡fico del PerÃº. Lima: INEI, 2008.
  • Instituto Nacional de EstadÃ­stica e InformÃ¡tica. PerÃº: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de PoblaciÃ³n, 1950â€“2050. Lima: INEI, 2001.
  • {{DOClink|weblink" title="">Ley NÂ° 27178, Ley del Servicio Militar}}. 28 September 1999.
  • Ley NÂ° 27867, weblink" title="">Ley Ley OrgÃ¡nica de Gobiernos Regionales. 16 November 2002.
  • Martin, Gerald. "Literature, music and the visual arts, c. 1820â€“1870". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), A cultural history of Latin America. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp. 3â€“45.
  • Porras Barrenechea, RaÃºl. El nombre del PerÃº. Lima: Talleres GrÃ¡ficos P.L. Villanueva, 1968.
  • {hide}citation

| title = Latin America's Wars: The Age of the Caudillo, 1791â€“1899
| first = Robert
| last = Scheina
| location =
| publisher = Brasseyâ€™s
| year = 2003
| isbn = 978-1-57488-450-0 {edih}
  • Thorp, Rosemary and Geoffrey Bertram. Peru 1890â€“1977: growth and policy in an open economy. New York: Columbia University Press, 1978, {{ISBN|0231034334}}

Further reading

  • {{es icon}} Banco Central de Reserva. Cuadros Anuales HistÃ³ricos.
  • {{es icon}} Instituto Nacional de EstadÃ­stica e InformÃ¡tica. PerÃº: Perfil de la pobreza por departamentos, 2004â€“2008. Lima: INEI, 2009.
  • Concha, Jaime. "Poetry, c. 1920â€“1950". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), A cultural history of Latin America. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp. 227â€“260.

External links

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