History of New York

History of New York
A replica of Henry Hudson's Halve Maan passes lower Manhattan

The history of New York begins around 10,000 BCE, when the first Native Americans arrived. By 1100 CE, New York's main tribes, the Iroquoian and Algonquian cultures, had developed. New York was discovered by the French in 1524 and first claimed in 1609 by the Dutch. As part of New Netherland, the colony was important in the fur trade and eventually became an agricultural resource thanks to the patroon system. In 1664, England renamed the colony New York. New York City gained prominence in the 18th century as a major trading port in the Thirteen Colonies.

New York played a pivotal role during the Revolutionary War. The Battle of Saratoga was the turning point of the war. New York's constitution was adopted in 1777, and strongly influenced the United States Constitution. New York City was the national capital at various times between 1785 and 1790, and Albany became the permanent state capital in 1797. New York was the eleventh state admitted to the Union, in 1787.

New York hosted significant transportation advancements in the 19th century, including the first steamboat line in 1807, the Erie Canal in 1825, and America's first regularly scheduled rail service in 1831. These advancements led to the expanded settlement of western New York.

Far from any of its battles, New York sent the most men and money to support the Civil War. Thereafter, the state helped create the industrial age and consequently was home to some of the first labor unions.

During the 19th century, New York City became the main entry point for European immigrants to the United States. Millions came through Castle Clinton in Battery Park before Ellis Island opened in 1892 to welcome millions more. The Statue of Liberty opened in 1886 and became a symbol of hope. New York boomed during the Roaring Twenties, before the Wall Street Crash of 1929. New York City hosted the tallest building in the world from 1913–74.

World War II turned around the state's economy, as hundreds of thousands worked to defeat the Axis powers. Following the war, the state experienced significant suburbanization, and most cities shrank. The Thruway system opened in 1956, signalling another era of transportation advances.

Following a period of near–bankruptcy, New York City renewed its stature as a cultural center, attracted more immigration, and hosted the development of new music styles. The City became a media capital over the second half of the 20th century, hosting most national news channels and broadcasts, as well as globally–renowned national newspapers. The state's manufacturing base eroded over the period, as the state transitioned into service industries.

The September 11 attacks destroyed the World Trade Center, killing almost 3,000 people; they were the largest terrorist attacks on United States soil.



Map of New York showing Algonquian tribes in the eastern and southern portions and Iroquoian tribes to the western and northern portions.
New York was dominated by Iroquoian (purple) and Algonquian (pink) Indian tribes.

The first peoples of New York are estimated to have arrived around 10,000 BCE. Around 800 CE, Iroquois ancestors moved into the area from the Appalachian region. The Point Peninsula Complex, the predecessors of the Algonquian peoples of New York, moved into the state around 1000 CE.[1] By around 1100, the distinct Iroquoian and Algonquian cultures that would eventually be encountered by Europeans had developed.[2] The Iroquois were the most notable New York Indians; they used their dominance over the fur trade as a bargaining chip with Europeans, while other New York tribes were typically at the mercy of either European destruction or assimilation within the Iroquoian confederacy.[3] Algonquian tribes were less united with neighboring peoples and typically lived along rivers, streams, or the Atlantic Coast.[4] Despite European beliefs at the time, the natives were well-established peoples with sophisticated cultural systems. The natives had "a complex and elaborate native economy that included hunting, gathering, manufacturing, and farming...[and were] a mosaic of Native American tribes, nations, languages, and political associations."[2]

New Netherland

A native looks over New York Harbor to see the arrival of Henry Hudson in 1609.

The first European to visit New York was Giovanni da Verrazzano in 1524.[5] The Dutch claimed the land in 1609 following Henry Hudson's search for a Northwest Passage. In 1614 the Dutch–built Fort Nassau, the first European settlement, in present-day Albany. Fort Orange replaced it in 1624. Fort Amsterdam was built in 1626 at Manhattan Island's southern tip. The resulting town of New Amsterdam became the largest settlement in New Netherland. During its early decades, the colony was dependent on the fur trade. The patroonship of Rensselaerswijck—a feudal manor surrounding Fort Orange—developed an agricultural industry. By the 1650s, under the leadership of Director Peter Stuyvesant, the colony was a main exporter of tobacco, wheat, and lumber; most of these commodities came through the village of Beverwijck, Albany's precursor.

British colonial period

A surprise attack with overwhelming force allowed the English to conquer New Netherland in 1664;[Note 1] lenient terms of surrender most likely kept local resistance to a minimum. The colony and city were both renamed New York (and "Beverwijck" was renamed Albany) after its new proprietor, James II of England, who was the Duke of York and Duke of Albany at the time.[Note 2] The population of New Netherland at the time of English takeover was 7–8,000.[1][8]|group=Note}} The manors represented more than half of the colony's undeveloped land. The Province of New York thrived during this time, its economy strengthened by Long Island and Hudson Valley agriculture, in conjunction with trade and artisanal activity at the Port of New York; the colony was a breadbasket and lumberyard for the British sugar colonies in the Caribbean. New York's population grew substantially during this century: from the first colonial census (1698) to the last (1771), the province grew ninefold, from 18,067 to 168,007. Europe, including English, Scottish, Palatine German, and Irish immigrants, was the main source, though the slave trade brought in many Africans. New York at one time had the largest African slave population north of the Mason-Dixon Line; the group peaked in 1720 at 16% of New York's population.[9]

Merchant and landlord factions dominated New York's political scene. Manorial families also had significant influence over the government. The colony was the center of conflicts between the British and French throughout the 18th century. The French and Indian Wars raged on and off for more than 70 years. New York was one of only two colonies that regularly housed British troops before 1755. The fighting pitted the native bands against each other, as the Europeans formed expedient alliances with them. Even during wars, the colonists sought control of Iroquoia, while the confederacy strained to stay together. Regardless of the Covenant Chain, the British and French continued to expand into Indian land; the French eventually found themselves being punished by the Iroquois through bloody raids in 1701 that forced the French to briefly retreat.[9]


John Trumbull's Surrender of General Burgoyne stylizes the American win at Saratoga.

New York played a pivotal role in the Revolutionary War. The colony verged on revolt following the Stamp Act of 1765, advancing the New York City–based Sons of Liberty to the forefront of New York politics. The Act exacerbated the depression the province experienced after unsuccessfully invading Canada in 1760.[10] Even though New York City merchants lost out on lucrative military contracts, the group sought common ground between the King and the people; however, compromise became impossible as of the April 1775 Battles of Lexington and Concord.

New York's location made it key to control of the colonies. England assembled the century's largest fleet: at one point 30,000 British sailors and soldiers anchored off Staten Island. General George Washington barely escaped New York City with his army in January 1776; General Sir William Howe was successful in driving Washington out, but erred by expanding into New Jersey. By January 1777, he retained only a few outposts near New York City. The British held the city for the duration, using it as a base for expeditions against other targets.

In October 1777, American General Horatio Gates won the Battle of Saratoga, later regarded as the war's turning point. Had Gates not held, the rebellion might well have broken down: losing Saratoga would have cost the entire Hudson–Champlain corridor, which would have separated New England from the rest of the colonies and split the future union.[11]

Statehood to the Civil War

Upon war's end, New York's borders became well–defined: the counties east of Lake Champlain became Vermont and the state's western borders were settled by 1786.

Many Iroquois supported the British (typically fearing future American ambitions). Many were killed during the war; others went into exile with the British. Those remaining lived on twelve reservations; by 1826 only eight reservations remained, all of which survived into the 21st century.

The state adopted its constitution in April 1777, creating a strong executive and strict separation of powers. It strongly influenced the federal constitution a decade later. Debate over the federal constitution in 1787 led to formation of the groups known as Federalists—mainly "downstaters" (those who lived in or near New York City) who supported a strong national government—and Antifederalists—mainly upstaters (those who lived to the City's north and west) who opposed large national institutions. In 1787, Alexander Hamilton, a leading Federalist from New York, wrote the first essay of the Federalist Papers. He published the series in New York City newspapers in support of the proposed United States constitution. Antifederalists were not swayed by the arguments, but the state ratified it in 1788.[12]

The Stadt Huys in Albany became the state's first permanent capitol when Albany became the capital in 1797.

In 1785, New York City became the national capital and continued as such on and off until 1790; George Washington was inaugurated as the first President of the United States in front of Federal Hall in 1789.[12] From statehood to 1797, the Legislature frequently moved the state capital between Albany, Kingston, Poughkeepsie, and New York City. Thereafter, Albany retained that role.[13]

In the early 19th century, New York became a center for advancement in transportation. In 1807, Robert Fulton initiated a steamboat line from New York to Albany, the first successful enterprise of its kind.[14] By 1815, Albany was the state's turnpike center,[15] which established the city as the hub for pioneers migrating west to Buffalo and the Michigan Territory.[16]

In 1825 the Erie Canal opened, securing the state's economic dominance. Its impact was enormous: one source stated, "Linking the Atlantic Ocean and the Great Lakes, the canal was an act of political will that joined the regions of the state, created a vast economic hinterland for New York City, and established a ready market for agricultural products from the state's interior." In that year western New York transitioned from "frontier" to settled area. By this time, all counties and most municipalities had incorporated, approximately matching the state's is organized today.[12] In 1831, the Mohawk and Hudson Railroad started the country's first successful regularly–scheduled steam railroad service.[17]

Advancing transportation quickly led to settlement of the fertile Mohawk and Gennessee valleys and the Niagara Frontier. Buffalo and Rochester became boomtowns. Significant migration of New England "Yankees" (mainly of English descent) to the central and western parts of the state led to minor conflicts with the more settled "Yorkers" (mainly of German, Dutch, and Scottish descent). More than 15% of the state's 1850 population had been born in New England. The western part of the state grew fastest at this time. By 1840, New York was home to seven of the nation's thirty largest cities.[Note 3]

New York culture bloomed in the first half of the 19th century: in 1809 Washington Irving wrote the satirical A History of New York under the pen name Deitrich Knickerbocker, and in 1819 he based Rip Van Winkle and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow in Hudson Valley towns;[19] Thomas Cole's Hudson River school established itself in the 1830s by showcasing dramatic landscapes of the Hudson Valley.[20] The first baseball teams formed in New York City in the 1840s, including the New York Knickerbockers. Professional baseball later located its Hall of Fame in Cooperstown. Saratoga Race Course, an annual summer attraction in Saratoga Springs, opened in 1847.[21]

Civil War

Hundreds of thousands of New York's young men fought during the Civil War, more than any other Northern state. A war was not in the best interest of business, because much of New York's trade was based on moving Southern goods. The city's large Democrat community feared the impact of Abraham Lincoln's election in 1860. By the time of the 1861 Battle of Fort Sumter, political differences had vanished and the state quickly met Lincoln's request for soldiers and supplies. While no battles were waged in New York, the state wasn't immune to Confederate conspiracies, including one to burn various New York cities and another to invade the state via Canada.[22]

In 1863, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which freed the slaves in states that were still in rebellion against the union. In March 1863, the federal draft law was changed so that male citizens between 20 and 35 and unmarried citizens to age 45 were subject to conscription. Those who could afford to hire a substitute or pay $300 were exempt. Antiwar newspaper editors attacked the law. Democratic Party leaders raised the specter of a deluge of southern blacks. On the lottery's first day, July 11, 1863, the first lottery law was held. On Monday, July 13, 1863, five days of large-scale riots began.[23]

Civil War to the turn of the century

Companies such as Eastman Kodak (Rochester headquarters pictured ca. 1900) epitomized New York's manufacturing economy in the late 19th century.

In the following decades, New York strengthened its dominance of the financial and banking industries. Manufacturing continued to rise: Eastman Kodak in Rochester, General Electric in Schenectady, and Endicott-Johnson Shoe Company in the Triple Cities are some of the well-known companies founded during that time. Buffalo and Niagara Falls attracted numerous factories following the advent of hydroelectric power in the area.[24] With industry blooming, workers began to unite in New York as early as the 1820s. By 1882, the Knights of Labor in New York City had 60,000 members. Trade unions were able to use political influence to limit working hours as early as 1867. At the same time, New York's agricultural output peaked. Focus changed from crop-based to dairy-based agriculture. By 1881, the state had more than 241,000 farms.[24] In the same period, the area around New York harbor became the world'soyster capital, retaining that title into the early twentieth century.[25]

Scenes showing immigrants arriving at the Immigration Depot at Ellis Island in 1906

Immigration increased throughout the latter half of the 19th century. Starting with the Irish potato famine in the 1840s, New York became a prominent entry point for those seeking a new life in the United States.[24] Between 1855 and 1890, an estimated 8 million immigrants passed through Castle Clinton at Battery Park in Manhattan.[26][Note 4] Early in this period, most immigrants came from Ireland and Germany. Ellis Island opened in 1892,[26] and between 1880 and 1920, most immigrants were German Jews, Poles, and other eastern and southern Europeans. By 1925, New York City's population outnumbered that of London, making it the most populous city in the world.[24] Arguably New York's most identifiable symbol, Liberty Enlightening the World (the Statue of Liberty), a gift from France for the American centennial, was completed in 1886. By the early 20th century, the statue was regarded as the "Mother of Exiles"—a symbol of hope to immigrants.[28]

New York's political pattern changed little after the mid–19th century. New York City was already heavily Democrat and Upstate, Republican. In the 1850s, Democratic Tammany Hall became one of the most powerful and durable political machines in United States history. Boss William Tweed brought the organization to the forefront of city and then state politics in the 1860s. Tammany maintained influence until at least the 1930s. Outside the city, Republicans were able to influence the redistricting process enough to constrain New York City and capture the Legislature in 1894. Both parties have seen political success: in the 39 presidential elections between 1856 and 2010, Republicans won 19 times and Democrats 20 times.[24]

1900 through the Great Depression

A frameworker tightens bolts on the Empire State Building in 1930; the recently completed Chrysler Building is seen in the background.

By 1900, New York was the richest and most populous state. Two years prior, the five boroughs of New York City became one city.[29] Within decades, the city's emblem had become the skyscraper: the Woolworth Building was the tallest building in the world from 1913, surpassed by 40 Wall Street in April 1930, the Chrysler Building in 1930, the Empire State Building in 1931, and the World Trade Center in 1972 before losing the title in 1974.[30]

In the early 20th century, governor Theodore Roosevelt and fellow Republicans invented Progressivism, later known as "the New York Idea".[citation needed] "Its main concerns included the righting of social ills, conservation, the discarding of ineffective and corrupt urban government, and control of trusts and other industrial combinations." Democrats continued the ideology. However, they were "more concerned about factory labor and urban problems and had closer ties to immigrants and organized labor." Democrats' efforts in Progressivism impacted the national party: "The Democratic Party developed a new image—at once urban and reform minded, pro-immigrant and welcoming to African Americans—that increasingly defined the northern Democratic Party."[29]

Following a sharp but short-lived Depression at the beginning of the decade,[31] New York enjoyed a booming economy during the Roaring Twenties. New York suffered during the Great Depression, which began with the Wall Street crash on Black Tuesday in 1929. The Securities and Exchange Commission opened in 1934 to regulate the stock market.[32] Franklin Delano Roosevelt was elected governor in 1928, and the state faced upwards of 25% unemployment. His Temporary Emergency Relief Agency, established in 1931, was the first work relief program in the nation and influenced the national Federal Emergency Relief Administration. Roosevelt was elected President in 1932 in part because of his promises to extend New York–style relief programs across the country via his New Deal.[29][33] In 1932, Lake Placid was host to the III Olympic Winter Games.[34]

World War II and the modern era

As the largest state, New York again supplied the most resources during World War II and suffered 31,215 casualties.[35] The war affected the state both socially and economically. For example, to overcome discriminatory labor practices, Governor Herbert H. Lehman created the Committee on Discrimination in Employment in 1941 and Governor Thomas E. Dewey signed the Ives–Quinn bill in 1945, banning employment discrimination. The G.I. Bill of 1944, which offered returning soldiers the opportunity of affordable higher education, forced New York to create a public university system since its private universities could not handle the influx; the State University of New York was created by Governor Dewey in 1948.[36]

World War II constituted New York's last great industrial era. At its conclusion, the defense industry shrank and the economy shifted towards producing services rather than goods. Returning soldiers disproportionately displaced female and minority workers who had entered the industrial workforce only when the war left employers no other choice.[36] Companies moved to the south and west, seeking lower taxes and a less costly, non–union workforce. Many workers followed the jobs.[37] The middle class expanded and created suburbs such as the one on Long Island. The automobile accelerated this decentralization; planned communities like Levittown offered affordable middle-class housing.[37]

Larger cities stopped growing around 1950. Growth resumed only in New York City, in the 1980s. Buffalo's population fell by half between 1950 and 2000. Reduced immigration and worker migration led New York State's population to decline for the first time between 1970 and 1980. California and Texas both surpassed it in population.[citation needed]

New York entered its third era of massive transportation projects by building highways, notably the New York State Thruway. The project was unpopular with New York City Democrats, who referred to it as "Dewey's ditch" and the "enemy of schools", because the Thruway disproportionately benefited upstate. The highway was based on the German Autobahn and was unlike anything seen at that point in the United States. It was within 30 miles (48 km) of 90% of the population at its conception. Costing $600 million, the full 427-mile (687 km) project opened in 1956.[38]

Nelson Rockefeller was governor from 1959–1973 and changed New York politics. He began as a liberal, but grew more conservative: he limited SUNY's growth, responded aggressively to the Attica Prison riot, and promulgated the uniquely severe Rockefeller Drug Laws. The World Trade Center and other profligate projects nearly drove New York City into bankruptcy in 1975. The state took substantial budgetary control, which eventually led to improved fiscal prudence.[37]

The Executive Mansion was retaken by Democrats in 1974 and remained under Democratic control for 20 years under Hugh Carey and Mario Cuomo. Late–century Democrats became more centrist, including US Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan (1977–2001) and New York City Mayor Ed Koch (1978–1989), while state Republicans began to align themselves with the more conservative national party. They gained power through the elections of Senator Alfonse D'Amato in 1980, Mayor Rudolph Giuliani in 1993, and Governor George Pataki in 1994. New York remained one of the most liberal states. In 1984, Ronald Reagan was the last Republican to carry the state, although Republican Michael Bloomberg served as New York City mayor in the early 21st century.[37]

The last decades of the 20th century

In the late 20th century, telecommunication and high technology industries employed many New Yorkers. New York City was especially successful at this transition. Entrepreneurs created many small companies, as industrial firms such as Polaroid withered. This success drew many young professionals into the still–dwindling cities. New York City was the exception, in part because changes in policing and urban development dramatically reduced crime rates and urban decay.[37]

This in turn led to a surge in culture. New York City became, once again, "the center for all things chic and trendy".[37] Hip-hop and rap music, led by New York City, became the most popular pop genre. Immigration to both the city and state rose. New York City, with a large gay and lesbian community, suffered many deaths from AIDS.[37]

New York City increased its already large share of television programming, home to the network news broadcasts as well as two of the three major cable news networks.[citation needed] The Wall Street Journal and The New York Times became two of the three "national" newspapers, read throughout the country.[citation needed] New York also increased its dominance of the financial services industry centered on Wall Street, led by banking expansion, a rising stock market, innovations in investment banking, including junk bond trading and accelerated by the savings and loan crisis that decimated competitors elsewhere.

Upstate did not fare as well as downstate; the major industries that began to reinvigorate New York City did not typically spread to other regions. The number of farms in the state had fallen to 30,000 by 1997. City populations continued to decline while suburbs grew in area, but did not increase proportionately in population.[37] High-tech industry grew in cities such as Corning and Rochester. Overall New York entered the new millennium "in a position of economic strength and optimism".[34]

September 11, 2001 to the present

United Airlines Flight 175 crashes into the South Tower of the World Trade Center during the September 11 attacks.

New York entered a new era following the September 11 attacks,[37] the worst terrorist attack to ever take place on American soil. Two hijacked passenger jets crashed into the World Trade Center, destroying them, and killing almost 3,000 people.[39] Thousands of New Yorkers volunteered their time to search the ruin for survivors and remains in the following weeks.

Following the attacks, Mayor of New York City Rudy Giuliani and President George W. Bush announced plans to rebuild the World Trade Center site. 7 World Trade Center became the first World Trade Center skyscraper to be rebuilt in five years after the attacks. One World Trade Center, four more office towers, and a memorial to the casualties of the September 11 attacks are currently under construction as of 2011.

Although noted for being one of the most dysfunctional Legislatures in the country,[citation needed] incumbent reelection rates far exceed 90%, and in 2002 only one incumbent in each house was defeated.[40]

See also


  1. ^ The takeover is commonly said to have been part of the Second Anglo-Dutch War. However, this war was not officially declared until 1665; the Dutch and English were actually at peace at the time.[6]
  2. ^ James Stuart (1633–1701), brother and successor of Charles II, was both the Duke of York and Duke of Albany before being crowned James II of England and James VII of Scotland in 1685.[7]
  3. ^ New York City (1st at 312,710), Brooklyn (7th at 36,233), Albany (9th at 33,721), Rochester (19th at 20,191), Troy (21st at 19,334), Buffalo (22nd at 18,213), Utica (29th at 12,782).[18]
  4. ^ By comparison, New York's population in 1890 was just over 5 million.[27]


  1. ^ a b Eisenstadt 2005, p. xx
  2. ^ a b Klein 2001, p. 3
  3. ^ Klein 2001, pp. 6–7
  4. ^ Klein 2001, p. 7
  5. ^ "Giovanni da Verrazzano". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/626406/Giovanni-da-Verrazzano. Retrieved 2010-10-10. 
  6. ^ Eisenstadt 2005, p. 1053 (article: "New Netherland")
  7. ^ "James II". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/299989/James-II. Retrieved 2011-01-02. 
  8. ^ Reynolds, Cuyler. Albany Chronicles: A History of the City Arranged Chronologically, From the Earliest Settlement to the Present Time. Albany: J. B. Lyon Company; 1906. p. 66.
  9. ^ a b Eisenstadt 2005, pp. xx–xxi
  10. ^ Klein (2001), p. 202
  11. ^ Eisenstadt 2005, pp. xxi–xxii
  12. ^ a b c Eisenstadt 2005, p. xxii
  14. ^ McEneny 2006, p. 92
  15. ^ McEneny 2006, p. 75
  16. ^ Albany. (2010). Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved November 10, 2010, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
  17. ^ New York State Department of Transportation. History of Railroads in New York State [cited 2010-06-04].
  18. ^ United States Census Bureau (1840). "Population of the 100 Largest Urban Places: 1840". United States Department of Commerce. http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027/tab07.txt. Retrieved 2010-11-10. 
  19. ^ Eisenstadt 2005, p. 798 (article: "Irving, Washington")
  20. ^ Eisenstadt 2005, p. 359 (article: "Cole, Thomas")
  21. ^ Eisenstadt 2005, p. xxiv
  22. ^ Eisenstadt 2005, pp. 335–337 (article: "Civil War")
  23. ^ Harris, Leslie M. (2003,). "The New York City Draft Riots of 1863". In the Shadow of Slavery:. ISBN 978-0-226-31774-8. http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/317749.html. Retrieved January 2011. 
  24. ^ a b c d e Eisenstadt 2005, p. xxv
  25. ^ Kurlansky, Mark (January 9, 2007). The Big Oyster—History on the Half Shell. Random House. ISBN 978-0-345-47639-5. 
  26. ^ a b Eisenstadt 2005, p. 498 (article: "Ellis Island")
  27. ^ "New York: 2000 (Population and Housing Unit Counts)" (PDF). 2000 United States Census. United States Census Bureau. 2000. http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2000/phc-3-34.pdf. Retrieved 2010-09-18.  (page 1 of the document, page 31 of the file)
  28. ^ Eisenstadt 2005, p. 1473 (article: "Statue of Liberty")
  29. ^ a b c Eisenstadt 2005, p. xxvi
  30. ^ Eisenstadt 2005, pp. 1417–1418 (article: "Skyscrapers")
  31. ^ Vernon, J.R. (July 1991). "The 1920–21 deflation: the role of aggregate supply". Economic Inquiry. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb5814/is_n3_v29/ai_n28604039/. Retrieved January 2011. 
  32. ^ Eisenstadt 2005, pp. 1102–1103 (article: "New York Stock Exchange")
  33. ^ Eisenstadt 2005, pp. 1334–1335 (article: "Roosevelt, Franklin Delano")
  34. ^ a b "New York". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/412293/New-York. Retrieved 2010-09-26. 
  35. ^ "World War 2 Casualty Statistics". http://www.secondworldwarhistory.com/world-war-2-statistics.asp. Retrieved January 2011. 
  36. ^ a b Eisenstadt 2005, pp. 1726–1728 (article: "World War II")
  37. ^ a b c d e f g h i Eisenstadt 2005, p. xxvii
  38. ^ Eisenstadt 2005, pp. 1100–1102
  39. ^ Eisenstadt 2005, pp. 1395–1401 (article: "September 11th, 2001")
  40. ^ Eisenstadt 2005, pp. 876–880 (article: "legislature")


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