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sulfadiazine (. 46.1), sulfadimidine (short acting), sulfamethoxazole (intermediate acting), sulfametopyrazine

(long acting), sulfasalazine (poorly absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract; also Chs 14 and 25) and
sulfamethoxazole (in combination with trimethoprim as co-trimoxazole). In the UK, only sulfamethoxazole,
sulfadiazine and trimethoprim are used clinically.
Cyanosis caused by methaemoglobinaemia may occur but is a lot less alarming than it looks. Serious adverse
effects necessitating cessation of therapy include hepatitis, hypersensitivity reactions (rashes, fever,
anaphylactoid reactions), bone marrow depression and crystalluria.

Combined with trimethoprim (co-trimoxazole) for Pneumocystis carinii.

Combined with pyrimethamine for drug-resistant malaria and for toxoplasmosis.
In inflammatory bowel disease: sulfasalazine (sulfapyridine-aminosalicylate combination) is used
For infected burns (silver sulfadiazine given topically).
For urinary tract and respiratory infections: trimethoprim , used on its own, is usually preferred.
For infection with Pneumocystis carinii, which causes pneumonia in patients with AIDS: cotrimoxazole is used in high dose
Sulfonamides are bacteriostatic; they act by interfering with folate synthesis and thus with nucleotide
synthesis. Unwanted effects include crystalluria and hypersensitivities.
Trimethoprim is bacteriostatic. It acts by antagonising folate.
attachment to penicillin-binding proteins on bacteria (there may be seven or more types in different organisms),
they inhibit the transpeptidation enzyme that cross-links the peptide chains attached to the backbone of the
The first penicillins were the naturally occurring benzylpenicillin and its congeners, including
phenoxymethylpenicillin. Benzylpenicillin is active against a wide range of organisms and is the drug of first
choice for many infections
-lactamase-resistant penicillins (e.g. flucloxacillin) and broad-spectrum penicillins (e.g. ampicillin ,
pivampicillin and amoxicillin ) have been produced. Extended-spectrum penicillins (e.g. ticarcilin) with
antipseudomonal activity
Amoxicillin is sometimes combined with -lactamase inhibitor clavulanic acid as co-amoxiclav.

bacterial meningitis (e.g. caused by Neisseria meningitidis, Streptococcus pneumoniae):

benzylpenicillin, high doses intravenously
bone and joint infections (e.g. with Staphylococcus aureus): flucloxacillin
skin and soft tissue infections (e.g. with Strep. pyogenes or Staph. aureus): benzylpenicillin,
flucloxacillin; animal bites: co-amoxiclav
pharyngitis (from Strep. pyogenes): phenoxylmethylpenicillin
otitis media (organisms commonly include Strep. pyogenes, Haemophilus influenzae): amoxicillin
bronchitis (mixed infections common): amoxicillin
pneumonia: amoxicillin
urinary tract infections (e.g. with Escherichia coli): amoxicillin
gonorrhea: amoxicillin (plus probenecid )
syphilis: procaine benzylpenicillin
endocarditis (e.g. with Strep. viridans or Enterococcus faecalis)
serious infections with Pseudomonas aeruginosa: ticarcillin, piperacillin
Cephalosporins N and C, which are chemically related to penicillin, and cephalosporin P, a steroidal antibiotic
that resembles fusidic acid
Diarrhoea can occur with oral cephalosporins and cefoperazone.

septicaemia (e.g. cefuroxime , cefotaxime)

pneumonia caused by susceptible organisms
meningitis (e.g. ceftriaxone, cefotaxime)
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biliary tract infection

urinary tract infection (especially in pregnancy or in patients unresponsive to other drugs)
sinusitis (e.g. cefadroxil).
Imipenem, an example of a carbapenem
cilastatin, which inhibits its inactivation by renal enzymes. Meropenem is similar but is not metabolised by the
kidney. Ertapenem has a broad spectrum of antibacterial actions
The main monobactam is aztreonam , a simple monocyclic -lactam with a complex substituent at which is
resistant to most -lactamases
-Lactamase-resistant penicillins (e.g. flucloxacillin):
Broad-spectrum penicillins (e.g. amoxicillin ):

Extended-spectrum penicillins (e.g. ticarcillin): given orally; they are susceptible to -lactamases
Imipenem is used with cilastin, which blocks its breakdown in the kidney.
Imipenem is a broad-spectrum antibiotic.
Aztreonam is active only against Gram-negative aerobic bacteria and is resistant to most -lactamases.
doxycycline is given once daily and may be used in patients with renal impairment. Uses (sometimes
in combination with other antibiotics) include:
rickettsial and chlamydial infections, brucellosis, anthrax and Lyme disease
inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone (e.g. by some malignant lung tumours), causing hyponataemia:
demeclocycline inhibits the action of this hormone (
Vitamin B complex deficiency can occur, as can suprainfection.
Phototoxicity (sensitisation to sunlight) has also been n, particularly with demeclocycline. Minocycline can
produce dose-related vestibular disturbances
Chloramphenicol The drug binds to the same site of the 50S
Chloramphenicol should be reserved for serious infections in which the benefit of the drug outweighs its
uncommon but serious haematological toxicity
It is effective in typhoid fever, but ciprofloxacin or amoxicillin and co-trimoxazole are similarly effective
It is bacteriostatic for most organisms but kills H.influenzae. Resistance, caused by the production of
chloramphenicol acetyltransferase ( p. 658), is plasmid-mediated.
depression of the bone marrow, resulting in pancytopenia
'grey baby syndrome'-vomiting, diarrhoea, flaccidity, low temperature and an ashen-grey colour
Spectinomycin is related to the aminoglycosides in structure, but its use is confined to the treatment of

Quinupristin and dalfopristin are members of the streptogramin family of compounds isolated from
Streptomyces pristinaespiralis, Individually, quinupristin and dalfopristin exhibit only very modest
bacteriostatic activity,

Coadministration of quinupristin-dalfopristin (3 parts to 7 parts, weight for weight) is an effective

approach to the treatment of serious infections of many Gram-positive bacteria

OXALAZIDONONES- inhibition of N-formylmethionyl-tRNA binding to the 70S ribosome. Linezolid active against
a wide variety of Gram-positive bacteria and is particularly useful for the treatment of drug-resistant bacteria
such as methicillin-resistant Staph. aureus, penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae and vancomycinresistant enterococci. The drug is also effective against some anaerobes, such as C. difficile. Most common
Gram-negative organisms are not susceptible to the drug. Linezolid can be used to treat pneumonia,
septicaemia, and skin and soft tissue infections.

Fusidic acid is a narrow-spectrum steroid antibiotic active mainly against Gram-positive bacteria.

Unwanted effects - Skin eruptions and jaundice can occur.

Erythromycin can cause jaundice.

Complicated urinary tract infections (norfloxacin , ofloxacin ).

Pseudomonas aeruginosa respiratory infections in patients with cystic fibrosis.
Invasive external otitis ('malignant otitis') caused by P.aeruginosa.
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Chronic Gram-negative bacillary osteomyelitis.

Eradication of Salmonella typhi in carriers.
Gonorrhoea (norfloxacin , ofloxacin ).
Bacterial prostatitis (norfloxacin ).
Cervicitis (ofloxacin ). Anthrax.

Vancomycin is a glycopeptide antibiotic, and teicoplanin is similar but longer lasting. Vancomycin is
bactericidal (except against streptococci) and acts by inhibiting cell wall synthesis ( . 45.3). It is
effective mainly against Gram-positive bacteria and methicillin-resistant staphylococci.
Nitrofurantoin is a synthetic compound active against Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms

Aluminium and magnesium antacids interfere with the absorption of the quinolones.
Unwanted effects are Arthropathy
inhibition of P450 enzymes), which can lead to theophylline toxicity in asthmatics

clinical use of nitrofurantoin is confined to the treatment of urinary tract infections.

polymixin B and colistin (polymixin E). They have cationic detergent properties and exert their antibacterial
action by disrupting the cell membrane phospholipids ( 45). They have a selective, rapidly bactericidal action on
Gram-negative bacilli, especially pseudomonads and coliform organisms

Unwanted effects may be serious and include neurotoxicity and nephrotoxicity.

Glycopeptide antibiotics (e.g. vancomycin). Vancomycin is bactericidal, inhibiting cell wall synthesis
Polymixins (e.g. colistin). They are bactericidal, acting by disrupting bacterial cell membranes.
isoniazid is limited to mycobacteria. It halts the growth of resting organisms (e.g. is bacteriostatic) but can kill
dividing bacteria , inhibits the synthesis of mycolic acids,
Unwanted effects- hepatotoxicity, Pyridoxal-hydrazone formation occurs mainly in slow acetylators. Isoniazid
may cause haemolytic anaemia in individuals with glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, and it
decreases the metabolism of the antiepileptic agents phenytoin , ethosuximide and carbamazepine ,
resulting in an increase in the plasma concentration and toxicity of these drugs.

Rifampicin acts by binding to, and inhibiting, DNA-dependent RNA polymerase in prokaryotic but not
in eukaryotic cells, kill intracellular micro-organisms including the tubercle bacillus

Rifampicin causes induction of hepatic metabolising enzymes,

Ethambutol has no effect on organisms other than mycobacteria, bacteriostatic,

Unwanted effects - optic neuritis, Colour vision,
Pyrazinamide is inactive at neutral pH but tuberculostatic at acid pH. It is effective against the
intracellular organisms in macrophages

Unwanted effects include gout, which is associated with high concentrations of plasma urates

the D-Ala-D-Ala dipeptide

Pyrazinamide is tuberculostatic against intracellular mycobacteria
Capreomycin is given intramuscularly. Unwanted effects include damage to kidney and to eighth nerve

Cycloserine is a broad-spectrum antibiotic that inhibits the growth of many bacteria, including coliforms
and mycobacteria. It is water-soluble and destroyed at acid pH, preventing the formation of D-alanine and

Clofazimine is a dye of complex structure. Its mechanism of action against leprosy bacilli may involve
an action on DNA. It also has anti-inflammatory activity and is useful in patients in whom dapsone
causes inflammatory side effects.
Unwanted effects - The skin and urine can develop a reddish colour and the lesions a blue-black
For tuberculoid leprosy: dapsone and rifampicin (rifampin ).
Dapsone is sulfonamide-like and may inhibit folate synthesis. It is given orally.
For lepromatous leprosy: dapsone , rifampicin and clofazimine .
Clofazimine is a dye that is given orally and can accumulate by sequestering in macrophages.
Unwanted effects include red skin and urine,
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Zidovudine is an analogue of thymidine.

can reduce mother-to-baby transmission by more than 20%

Didanosine is an analogue of deoxyadenosine Zalcitabine is a homologue of cytosine
Lamivudine is an analogue of cytosine, Lamivudine is also used in the therapy of hepatitis B infection.

Stavudine is a thymidine analogue.

Abacavir is a guanosine analogue and has so far proved to be more effective

Nevirapine can prevent mother-to-baby transmission of HIV if given to the parturient mother and the neonate.
Nelfinavir and ritonavir are best taken with food, and saquinavir within 2 hours of a meal.
aciclovir. This agent is a guanosine derivative with a high specificity for herpes simplex and varicella zoster
valaciclovir, a prodrug of aciclovir, and famciclovir , which is metabolised to the active compound penciclovir
Tribavirin (ribavirin, synthetic nucleoside, similar in structure to guanosine. It is thought to act either by
altering virus nucleotide pools or by interfering with the synthesis of viral mRNA. It inhibits DNA and RNA
viruses, In aerosol form, it treats influenza and respiratory syncytial virus (an RNA paramyxovirus). hepatitis C ,
Lassa fever, an extremely serious arenavirus infection.
Foscarnet is a synthetic non-nucleoside analogue of pyrophosphate that inhibits viral DNA polymerase by
binding directly to the pyrophosphate-binding site, cause serious nephrotoxicity. intravenous infusion,secondline drug in cytomegalovirus eye infection in immunocompromised patients
INHIBITORS OF HIV FUSION WITH HOST CELLS- enfurvirtide cause flu-like symptoms,
neuraminidase inhibitors zanamivir and oseltamivir are active against both influenza A and B viruses,,
Zanamivir is available as a powder for inhalation

Amantadine,3 quite an old drug (1966) and seldom recommended today, effectively blocks the M2 ion
channels, thus inhibiting viral disassembly. It is active against influenza A virus (an RNA virus) only.

palivisumab, a monoclonal antibody ( Chs 13 and 55) directed against a glycoprotein on the surface of
respiratory syncytial virus.
IFN-, termed immune interferon ( p. 223), is produced mainly by T lymphocytes
IFN- and IFN- are produced by B and T lymphocytes, macrophages and fibroblasts in response to the presence
of viruses and cytokines.
IFNs bind to specific ganglioside receptors on host cell membranes

Interferon--2a is used for treatment of hepatitis B infections and AIDS-related Kaposi sarcomas; IFN-2b is used for hepatitis C.

Inosine pranobex interfere with viral nucleic acid synthesis but also has immunopotentiating actions on host.

inhibitors of proteases that prevent viral protein processing (e.g. saquinavir , indinavir)
inhibitors of viral DNA polymerase that prevent replication (e.g. aciclovir, famciclovir )
inhibitors of viral capsule disassembly (e.g. amantidine)
inhibitors of neuraminidase that prevent viral escape from infected cells (e.g. oseltamivir)
immunomodulators that enhance host defences (e.g. interferons and inosine pranobex)

Trypanosoma cruzi
Chagas' disease Nifurtimox, benzindazole
Trypanosoma rhodesiense Sleeping sickness Suramin, pentamidine, melarpasol, eflornithine, nifurtimox
Trypanosoma gambiense
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Metronidazole given orally (half-life 7 hours). Active against the invasive form in gut and liver but not the cysts.

Diloxanide is given orally It is active, while unabsorbed, against the non-invasive form in
gastrointestinal tract.
metronidazole (or tinidazole ) followed by diloxanide for acute invasive intestinal amoebiasis
resulting in acute severe amoebic dysentery
diloxanide for chronic intestinal amoebiasis
metronidazole followed by diloxanide for hepatic amoebiasis
diloxanide for the carrier state.
Metronidazole is activated by anaerobic organisms to a compound that damages parasite DNA, leading to
parasite apoptosis.
The drug interferes with alcohol metabolism, and concurrent use of the substance should be strictly avoided.
Metronidazole should not be used in pregnancy.
diloxanide furoate, are the drugs of choice for the asymptomatic infected patient

The main drugs used for African sleeping sickness are suramin, with pentamidine as an alternative, in
the haemolymphatic stage of the disease, and the arsenical melarsoprol for the late stage with CNS
involvement (see Burchmore et al., 2002; Burri & Brun, 2003). Other agents include nifurtimox and
eflornithine. Nifurtimox is also used in Chagas' disease as is benznidazole

Suramin was introduced into the therapy of trypanosomiasis, inhibits parasite enzymes, inducing gradual
destruction of organelles,
Pentamidine has a direct trypanocidal action in vitro. It is rapidly taken up in the parasites by a high-affinity
energy-dependent carrier and is thought to interact with the DNA.
eflornithine (the only new drug to be registered over the past 50 years) has shown good activity against T.
gambiense and is used as a back-up for melarsoprol, The drug targets parasite ornithine metabolism
megazol, another useful trypanocidal but causes genotoxicity.
The main drugs used in visceral leishmaniasis are pentavalent antimony compounds such as sodium
stibogluconate and meglumine antimoniate (not in the UK), but resistance to these agents is increasing and
their toxicity is high. Amphotericin (see Ch. 48) is a useful back-up, and pentamidine isethionate (see above) is
also used in antimony-resistant leishmaniasis. In some countries, miltefosine, originally developed as an
antitumour drug,
Miltefosine (hexadecylphosphocholine) is also effective IN both cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis
Sodium stibogluconate increase production of oxygen free radicals, which are toxic to the parasite. Coughing
and substernal pain may occur during intravenous infusion.
TRICHOMONIASIS AND TRICHOMANICIDAL DRUGS- metronidazole , tinidazole effective,
GIARDIASIS - Metronidazole is the drug of choice
P. falciparum, an erythrocytic cycle of 48 hours in humans, produces malignant tertian malaria-'tertian'

P. vivax produces benign tertian malaria-'benign' because it is less severe than falciparum malaria and is
rarely fatal. Exoerythrocytic forms may persist for years and cause relapses.
P. ovale, which has a 48-hour cycle and an exoerythrocytic stage, is the cause of a rare form of malaria.
P. malariae has a 72-hour cycle, causes quartan malaria and has no exoerythrocytic cycle.
Bed nets sprayed with insecticides such as permethrin can be very effective.
quinoline-methanols (e.g. quinine and mefloquine), various 4-aminoquinolines (e.g. chloroquine ), the
phenanthrene halofantrine, and agents that interfere with the synthesis of folate (e.g. sulfones) or with its
action (e.g. pyrimethamine and proguanil), as well as the hydroxynaphthoquinone compound atovaquone .
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antibiotics, such as tetracycline and doxycycline , have proved useful when combined with the above agents.
Compounds derived from qinghaosu, - artemether, arteflene and artesunate,

All plasmodial infections except chloroquine-

resistant Plasmodium falciparum

Infection with chloroquine-resistant P.


Oral chloroquine or

sulfadoxine- pyrimethamine
Oral quinine plus:
(i) tetracycline
(ii) doxycycline , oral
halofantrine, mefloquine

Oral chloroquine and/or

Oral chloroquine plus:
(i) proguanil or (ii)
(iii) pyrimethamine ,
Malaroneb or oral

Chloroquine is a very potent blood schizonticidal agent, effective against the erythrocytic forms of all 4
plasmodial species , but it does not have any effect on sporozoites, hypnozoites or gametocytes, chloroquine
inhibits protein, RNA and DNA synthesis, chloroquine acts mainly on haem disposal by preventing digestion of
haemoglobin by the parasite and thus reducing the supply of amino acids necessary for parasite viability. It also
inhibits haem polymerase-the enzyme that polymerises toxic free haem to haemozoin-rendering it harmless to
the parasite. Chloroquine is also used as a disease-modifying antirheumatoid drug and also has quinidine-like
actions on heart.
Unwanted effects- retinopathies. Ypotension, dysrhythmias. Chloroquine is considered to be safe for use by
pregnant women.
Quinine blood schizonticidal drug effective against the erythrocytic forms of all four species of plasmodium
quinine is now the main chemotherapeutic agent for P. falciparum
Unwanted effects - bitter taste, and oral compliance is often poor.3 It is irritant to the gastric mucosa
'cinchonism'- tinnitus, Quinine can stimulate insulin release. Blackwater fever, a severe and often fatal condition
in which acute haemolytic anaemia is associated with renal failure.

Mefloquine (fig. 49.2) is a blood schizonticidal quinoline- methanol compound , Mefloquine (fig. 49.2)
is a blood schizonticidal quinoline- methanol compound

Halofantrine is a blood schizonticidal drug.

Unwanted effects rise in hepatic enzymes and cough occur, lengthening of the QT interval, haemolytic anaemia
and convulsions,

Pyrimethamine is a 2,4-diaminopyrimidine (see Fig. 49.3) and is similar in structure to trimethoprim

sulfonamides and sulfones are active against the erythrocytic forms of P. falciparum,
Pyrimethamine-sulfadoxine has been extensively used for chloroquine-resistant malaria,

pyrimethamine-dapsone combination cause haemolytic anaemia, agranulocytosis and eosinophilic alveolitis.

pyrimethamine-sulfadoxine combination cause serious skin reactions, blood dyscrasias and allergic alveolitis;

The only 8-aminoquinoline is primaquine, action of this class of drugs is exerted against the liver hypnozoites, it
has a gametocidal action and is the most effective antimalarial drug for preventing transmission of the disease in
all four species of plasmodia. It is used in combination with another drug, chloroquine .
Unwanted effects- methaemoglobinaemia with cyanosis. Haemolysis, Primaquine metabolites have greater
haemolytic activity than the parent compound,
doxycycline and tetracycline, have a place in the treatment of the acute attack of malaria and in
Artemisia, is a fast-acting blood schizonticide effective in treating the acute attack of malaria (including
chloroquine-resistant and cerebral malaria). Artesunate, a water-soluble derivative, and the synthetic analogues
artemether and artether have higher activity it may involve damage to the parasite membrane by carboncentred free radicals (generated by the breakdown of ferrous protoporphyrin IX) or covalent alkylation of
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Unwanted effects- artemisinin causes an unusual injury to some brain stem nuclei, particularly those involved in
auditory function;
artemisinin potentiated the effects of mefloquine, primaquine and tetracycline; was additive with chloroquine;
and antagonised the sulfonamides and the folate antagonists.
artemether is often given in combination with the aminoalcohol lumefantrine.
Artemisinin and derivatives are effective against multidrug-resistant P. falciparum in sub-Saharan Africa and,
combined with mefloquine, against multidrug-resistant P. falciparum
HYDROXYNAPHTHOQUINONE DRUGS- Atavaquone is used for the treatment of malaria and can prevent its
development. It acts primarily to inhibit the parasite's mitochondrial electron transport chain, possibly by
mimicking the natural substrate ubiquinone.
Lumefantrine is structurally related to quinine and is effective against P. falciparum, particularly when combined
with either mefloquine or artemisinin derivatives.

Chloroquine is a blood schizonticide, Quinine is a blood schizonticide. tinnitus, blurred vision and, in large
doses, dysrhythmias ,pyrimethamine , a folate antagonist that acts as a slow blood schizonticide, Mefloquine is
a blood schizonticidal agent active against P. falciparum and P. vivax, and acts by inhibiting the parasite haem
polymerase, Halofantrine is a blood schizonticidal agent,

Primaquine effective against liver hypnozoites , gametocytes. Unwanted effects: methaemoglobinaemia.

Erythrocyte haemolysis with genetic deficiency of glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase.

mebendazole , tiabendazole and albendazole . They are thought to act by inhibiting the polymerisation of
helminth -tubulin, thus interfering with microtubule-dependent functions such as glucose uptake.

Onchocerca volvulus Ivermectin

Praziquantel is a highly effective broad-spectrum antihelminthic drug, The drug apparently disrupts Ca2+
homeostasis in the parasite by binding to consensus protein kinase C-binding sites in a subunit of schistosome
voltage-gated calcium channels (Greenberg, 2005). This induces an influx of the ion, a rapid and prolonged
contraction of the musculature, and eventual paralysis and death of the worm.
Praziquantel is considered safe for pregnant and lactating women,
Piperazine can be used to treat infections with the common roundworm (Ascaris lumbricoides) and the
threadworm (Enterobius vermicularis). It reversibly inhibits neuromuscular transmission in the worm, probably
by acting like GABA, The paralysed worms are expelled alive by normal intestinal peristaltic movements.

Niclosamide is widely used for the treatment of tapeworm infections together with praziquantel . The
scolex (the head of the worm with the parts that attach to the host intestinal cells) and a proximal
segment are irreversibly damaged by the drug;

Diethylcarbamazine is a piperazine derivative active in filarial infections caused by W. bancrofti and L. loa
Unwanted effects enlargement of lymph glands.

Levamisole is effective in infections with the common round-worm (Ascaris lumbricoides). It has a
nicotine-like action, stimulating and subsequently blocking the neuromuscular junctions. The paralysed
worms are then expelled in the faeces. Ova are not killed.

ivermectin has been used with enormoussuccess in humans as a safe and highly effective broad-spectrum
antiparasitic. It is the first choice of drug for the treatment of filarial infections and is very effective in
onchocerciasis. A single dose kills the immature microfilariae of O. volvulus but not the adult worms.
Ivermectin is thought to kill the worm by opening glutamate-gated chloride channels (found only in
invertebrates) and increasing Cl- conductance; by binding to a novel allosteric site on the acetylcholine nicotinic
receptor to cause an increase in transmission, leading to motor paralysis;

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The presence of the P-glycoprotein transporter in some species of nematode has already been mentioned, and it has
been demonstrated that the use of agents such as verapamil that block the transporter can partially reverse
benzimidazole resistance in trypanosomes

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