Mountain Lion

Mountain Lion


Temporal range: Middle Pleistocene to recent
Conservation status
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Felidae
Subfamily: Felinae
Genus: Puma
Species: Puma concolor
Binomial name
Puma concolor
(Linnaeus, 1771)
  • P. c. couguar - North America
  • P. c. costaricensis - Central America
  • P. c. capricornensis - eastern South America
  • P. c. concolor - northern South America
  • P. c. cabrerae - central South America
  • P. c. puma - southern South America

Also see text

Cougar range

Felis concolor

The cougar (Puma concolor), also known as the mountain lion, puma, panther, mountain cat,[3] or catamount, is a large cat of the family Felidae native to the Americas. Its range, from the Canadian Yukon to the southern Andes of South America, is the greatest of any large wild terrestrial mammal in the Western Hemisphere.[4] An adaptable, generalist species, the cougar is found in most American habitat types. It is the second heaviest cat in the Western Hemisphere, after the jaguar. Solitary by nature and nocturnal,[5] the cougar is most closely related to smaller felines and is nearer genetically to the domestic cat than true lions.


Excessive hunting following European colonization of the Americas and the ongoing human development of cougar habitat has caused populations to drop in most parts of its historical range. In particular, the cougar was extirpated in eastern North America in the beginning of the 20th century, except for an isolated subpopulation in Florida. However, in recent decades, breeding populations have moved east into the far western parts of the Dakotas, Nebraska, and Oklahoma. Transient males have been verified in Minnesota,[7] Wisconsin,[8] Iowa,[9][10] the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, and Illinois, where a cougar was shot in the city limits of Chicago[11][12][13] and, in at least one instance, observed as far east as Connecticut.[14][15]

Naming and etymology

With its vast range across the length of the Americas, Puma concolor has dozens of names and various references in the mythology of the indigenous Americans and in contemporary culture. The cat has many names in English, of which cougar, puma and mountain lion are popular. "Mountain lion" was a term first used in writing in 1858 from the diary of George A. Jackson of Colorado.[16] However, mountain lion is technically incorrect, as its range is not limited to mountain regions, nor can it roar like a true lion, the latter being of the genus Panthera. Other names include "catamount" (probably a contraction from "cat of the mountain"), "panther", "mountain screamer" and "painter". Lexicographers regard "painter" as a primarily upper-Southern US regional variant on "panther".[17] The word panther, while technically referring to all members of the genus Panthera, is commonly used to specifically designate the black panther, a melanistic jaguar or leopard, and the Florida panther, a subspecies of cougar (Puma concolor coryi).



In the 17th century, German naturalist Georg Marcgrave named the cat the cuguacu ara. Marcgrave's rendering was reproduced by his associate, Dutch naturalist Willem Piso, in 1648. Cuguacu ara was then adopted by English naturalist John Ray in 1693.[19] The French naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon in 1774 (probably influenced by the word "jaguar") converted the cuguacu ara to cuguar, from when it was later modified to "cougar" in English.[20][21][22]

The first English record of "puma" was in 1777, where it had come from the Spanish, who in turn borrowed it from the Peruvian Quechua language in the 16th century, where it means "powerful".[23] Puma is also the most common name cross-linguistically.

Taxonomy and evolution


Studies have indicated the cougar and jaguarundi are most closely related to the modern cheetah of Africa and western Asia,[25][26] but the relationship is unresolved. The cheetah lineage is suggested to have diverged from the Puma lineage in the Americas (see American cheetah) and migrated back to Asia and Africa,[25][26] while other research suggests the cheetah diverged in the Old World itself.[27] The outline of small feline migration to the Americas is thus unclear.



Until the late 1980s, as many as 32 subspecies were recorded; however, a recent genetic study of mitochondrial DNA[26] found many of these are too similar to be recognized as distinct at a molecular level. Following the research, the canonical Mammal Species of the World (3rd ed.) recognizes six subspecies, five of which are solely found in Latin America:[1]

Argentine puma (Puma concolor cabrerae)
Costa Rican cougar (P. c. costaricensis)
Eastern South American cougar (P. c. anthonyi)
includes the previous subspecies and synonyms acrocodia, borbensis, capricornensis, concolor (Pelzeln, 1883), greeni, and nigra
North American cougar (P. c. couguar) 
Northern South American cougar (P. c. concolor)
Southern South American puma (P. c. puma)
includes the previous subspecies and synonyms araucanus, concolor (Gay, 1847), patagonica, pearsoni, and puma (Trouessart, 1904)

The status of the Florida panther, here collapsed into the North American cougar, remains uncertain. It is still regularly listed as subspecies P. c. coryi in research works, including those directly concerned with its conservation.[28] Culver et al. noted low microsatellite variation in the Florida panther, possibly due to inbreeding;[26] responding to the research, one conservation team suggests, "the degree to which the scientific community has accepted the results of Culver et al. and the proposed change in taxonomy is not resolved at this time."[29]

Biology and behavior

Physical characteristics

Cougars are slender and agile members of the cat family. They are the fourth-largest cat;[30] adults stand about 60 to 90 cm (24 to 35 in) tall at the shoulders.[31] Adult males are around 2.4 m (7.9 ft) long nose-to-tail and females average 2.05 m (6.7 ft), with overall ranges between 1.5 to 2.75 m (4.9 to 9.0 ft) nose to tail suggested for the species in general.[32][33] Of this length, 63 to 95 cm (25 to 37 in) is comprised by the tail.[34] Males typically weigh 53 to 100 kg (115 to 220 lb), averaging 62 kg (137 lb). Females typically weigh between 29 and 64 kg (64 and 141 lb), averaging 42 kg (93 lb).[35][34][36] Cougar size is smallest close to the equator, and larger towards the poles.[4] The largest recorded cougar, shot in Arizona, weighed 125.5 kg (276 lb) after its intestines were removed, indicating in life it could have weighed nearly 136.2 kg (300 lb).[37] Several male cougars in British Columbia weighed between 86.4 and 95.5 kg (190 to 210 lb).[38]


Cougars can be almost as large as jaguars, but are less muscular and not as powerfully built; where their ranges overlap, the cougar tends to be smaller than average. Besides the jaguar, the cougar is on average larger than all felids outside of the Old World lion and tigers. Despite its size, it is not typically classified among the "big cats", as it cannot roar, lacking the specialized larynx and hyoid apparatus of Panthera.[40] Compared to "big cats", cougars are often silent with minimal communication through vocalizations outside of the mother-offspring relationship.[41] Cougars sometimes voice low-pitched hisses, growls, and purrs, as well as chirps and whistles, many of which are comparable to those of domestic cats. They are well known for their screams, as referenced in some of their common names, although these screams are often misinterpreted to be the calls of other animals.[42]

Cougar coloring is plain (hence the Latin concolor) but can vary greatly between individuals and even between siblings. The coat is typically tawny, but ranges to silvery-grey or reddish, with lighter patches on the underbody, including the jaws, chin, and throat. Infants are spotted and born with blue eyes and rings on their tails;[35] juveniles are pale, and dark spots remain on their flanks.[33] Despite anecdotes to the contrary, all-black coloring (melanism) has never been documented in cougars.[43] The term "black panther" is used colloquially to refer to melanistic individuals of other species, particularly jaguars and leopards.[44]

Cougars have large paws and proportionally the largest hind legs in the cat family.[35] This physique allows it great leaping and short-sprint ability. The cougar is able to leap as high as 5.5 m (18 ft) in one bound, and as far as 40 to 45 ft (12 to 13.5 m) horizontally.[45][46][47][48] The cougar's top running speed ranges between 64 to 80 km/h (40 to 50 mph),[49][50] but is best adapted for short, powerful sprints rather than long chases. It is adept at climbing, which allows it to evade canine competitors. Although it is not strongly associated with water, it can swim.[51]

Hunting and diet






Reproduction and life cycle

Females reach sexual maturity between one-and-a-half to three years of age. They typically average one litter every two to three years throughout their reproductive lives,[57] though the period can be as short as one year.[35] Females are in estrus for about 8 days of a 23-day cycle; the gestation period is approximately 91 days.[35] Females are sometimes reported as monogamous,[58] but this is uncertain and polygyny may be more common.[59] Copulation is brief but frequent. Chronic stress can result in low reproductive rates when in captivity as well as in the field.[60]



Life expectancy in the wild is reported at eight to 13 years, and probably averages eight to 10; a female of at least 18 years was reported killed by hunters on Vancouver Island.[35] Cougars may live as long as 20 years in captivity. One male North American cougar (P. c. couguar), named Scratch, was two months short of his 30th birthday when he died in 2007.[63] Causes of death in the wild include disability and disease, competition with other cougars, starvation, accidents, and, where allowed, human hunting. Feline immunodeficiency virus, an endemic HIV-like virus in cats, is well-adapted to the cougar.[64]

Social structure and home range


Estimates of territory sizes vary greatly. Canadian Geographic reports large male territories of 150 to 1000 km2 (58 to 386 sq mi) with female ranges half the size.[58] Other research suggests a much smaller lower limit of 25 km2 (10 sq mi), but an even greater upper limit of 1300 km2 (500 sq mi) for males.[57] In the United States, very large ranges have been reported in Texas and the Black Hills of the northern Great Plains, in excess of 775 km2 (300 sq mi).[65] Male ranges may include or overlap with those of females but, at least where studied, not with those of other males, which serves to reduce conflict between cougars. Ranges of females may overlap slightly with each other. Scrape marks, urine, and feces are used to mark territory and attract mates. Males may scrape together a small pile of leaves and grasses and then urinate on it as a way of marking territory.[51]

Home range sizes and overall cougar abundance depend on terrain, vegetation, and prey abundance.[57] One female adjacent to the San Andres Mountains, for instance, was found with a large range of 215 km2 (83 sq mi), necessitated by poor prey abundance.[62] Research has shown cougar abundances from 0.5 animals to as much as 7 (in one study in South America) per 100 km2 (38 sq mi).[35]

Because males disperse farther than females and compete more directly for mates and territory, they are most likely to be involved in conflict. Where a subadult fails to leave his maternal range, for example, he may be killed by his father.[65] When males encounter each other, they hiss, spit, and may engage in violent conflict if neither backs down.[59] Hunting or relocation of the cougar may increase aggressive encounters by disrupting territories and bringing young, transient animals into conflict with established individuals.[66]


Distribution and habitat

The cougar has the largest range of any wild land animal in the Americas. Its range spans 110 degrees of latitude, from northern Yukon in Canada to the southern Andes. It is one of only three cat species, along with the bobcat and Canada lynx, native to Canada.[39] Its wide distribution stems from its adaptability to virtually every habitat type: it is found in all forest types, as well as in lowland and mountainous deserts. The cougar prefers regions with dense underbrush, but can live with little vegetation in open areas.[2] Its preferred habitats include precipitous canyons, escarpments, rim rocks, and dense brush.[51]

The cougar was extirpated across much of its eastern North American range (with the exception of Florida) in the two centuries after European colonization, and faced grave threats in the remainder of its territory. Currently, it ranges across most western American states, the Canadian provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan and British Columbia, and the Canadian territory of Yukon. There have been widely debated reports of possible recolonization of eastern North America.[67] DNA evidence has suggested its presence in eastern North America,[68] while a consolidated map of cougar sightings shows numerous reports, from the mid-western Great Plains through to eastern Canada.[69] The Quebec wildlife services (known locally as MRNF) also considers cougar to be present in the province as a threatened species after multiple DNA tests confirmed cougar hair in lynx mating sites.[70] The only unequivocally known eastern population is the Florida panther, which is critically endangered. There have been unconfirmed sightings in Elliotsville Plantation, Maine (north of Monson); and in New Hampshire, there have been unconfirmed sightings as early as 1997.[71] In 2009, the Michigan Department of Natural Resources confirmed a cougar sighting in Michigan's Upper Peninsula.[72] Typically, extreme-range sightings of cougars involve young males, which can travel great distances to establish ranges away from established males; all four confirmed cougar kills in Iowa since 2000 involved males.[73]


The Indiana Department of Natural Resources used motion-sensitive cameras to confirm the presence of a cougar in Greene County in southern Indiana on May 7, 2010. Another sighting in late 2009 in Clay County in west-central Indiana was confirmed by the DNR.[75]

On June 10, 2011, a cougar was observed roaming near Greenwich, Connecticut. State officials at the time said they believed it was a released pet.[76] On June 11, 2011, a cougar, believed to be the same animal as the one observed in Greenwich, was killed by a car on the Wilbur Cross Parkway in Milford, Connecticut.[77] When wildlife officials examined the cougar's DNA, they concluded it was a wild cougar from the Black Hills of South Dakota, which had wandered at least 1,500 miles east over an indeterminate time period.[78]

In October 2012, a trail camera in Morgan County, Illinois snapped a photograph of a cougar,[79] and on November 6, 2012 a trail camera in Pike County captured a photo also believed to be of a cougar.[80]


The cougar's total breeding population is estimated at less than 50,000 by the IUCN, with a declining trend.[2] US state-level statistics are often more optimistic, suggesting cougar populations have rebounded. In Oregon, a healthy population of 5,000 was reported in 2006, exceeding a target of 3,000.[82] California has actively sought to protect the cat and a similar number of cougars has been suggested, between 4,000 and 6,000.[83]


Ecological role

Aside from humans, no species preys upon mature cougars in the wild, although conflicts with other predators or scavengers occur. The Yellowstone National Park ecosystem provides a fruitful microcosm to study inter-predator interaction in North America. Of the three large predators, the massive Grizzly Bear appears dominant, often although not always able to drive both the gray wolf pack and the cougar off their kills. One study found that American black bears visited 24% of cougar kills in Yellowstone and Glacier National Parks, usurping 10% of carcasses. Bears gained up to 113%, and cougars lost up to 26%, of their respective daily energy requirements from these encounters.[86] Accounts of cougars and black bears killing each other in fights to the death have been documented from the 19th century.[87][88] In spite of the size and power of the cougar, there have also been accounts of both brown and black bears killing cougars, either in disputes or in self-defense.[89][90]

The gray wolf and the cougar compete more directly for prey, especially in winter. While individually more powerful than the gray wolf, a solitary cougar may be dominated by the pack structure of the canines. Wolves can steal kills and occasionally kill the cat. One report describes a large pack of 7 to 11 wolves killing a female cougar and her kittens.[91] Conversely, lone wolves are at a disadvantage, and have been reported killed by cougars.[92] Various accounts of cougars killing lone wolves, including a six-year old female, have also been documented.[93][94][95] Wolves more broadly affect cougar population dynamics and distribution by dominating territory and prey opportunities, and disrupting the feline's behavior. Preliminary research in Yellowstone, for instance, has shown displacement of the cougar by wolves.[96] In nearby Sun Valley, Idaho, a recent cougar/wolf encounter that resulted in the death of the cougar was documented.[97] One researcher in Oregon noted: "When there is a pack around, cougars are not comfortable around their kills or raising kittens ... A lot of times a big cougar will kill a wolf, but the pack phenomenon changes the table."[98]

Both species, meanwhile, are capable of killing mid-sized predators, such as bobcats and coyotes, and tend to suppress their numbers.[53] Although cougars can kill coyotes, the latter have been documented attempting to prey on cougar cubs.[99]

In the southern portion of its range, the cougar and jaguar share overlapping territory.[100] The jaguar tends to take larger prey and the cougar smaller where they overlap, reducing the cougar's size and also further reducing the likelihood of direct competition.[4] Of the two felines, the cougar appears best able to exploit a broader prey niche and smaller prey.[101]

As with any predator at or near the top of its food chain, the cougar impacts the population of prey species. Predation by cougars has been linked to changes in the species mix of deer in a region. For example, a study in British Columbia observed that the population of mule deer, a favored cougar prey, was declining while the population of the less frequently preyed-upon white-tailed deer was increasing.[102] The Vancouver Island marmot, an endangered species endemic to one region of dense cougar population, has seen decreased numbers due to cougar and gray wolf predation.[103] Nevertheless, there is a measurable effect on the quality of deer populations by puma predation.[104][105]



Main article: Pumapard



Conservation status

The World Conservation Union (IUCN) currently lists the cougar as a "least concern" species. The cougar is regulated under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES),[107] rendering illegal international trade in specimens or parts.

In the United States east of the Mississippi River, the only unequivocally known cougar population is the Florida panther. Until 2011, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) recognized both an Eastern cougar (claimed to be a subspecies by some, denied by others)[108][109] and the Florida panther, affording protection under the Endangered Species Act.[110][111] Certain taxonomic authorities have collapsed both designations into the North American cougar, with Eastern or Florida subspecies not recognized,[1] while a subspecies designation remains recognized by some conservation scientists.[28] The most recent documented count for the Florida sub-population is 87 individuals, reported by recovery agencies in 2003.[112] In March 2011, the USFWS declared the Eastern cougar extinct. However, with the taxonomic uncertainty about its existence as a subspecies as well as the possibility of eastward migration of cougars from the western range, the subject remains open.[113]





Relationships with humans

In mythology


In North America, mythological descriptions of the cougar have appeared in the stories of the Hocąk language ("Ho-Chunk" or "Winnebago") of Wisconsin and Illinois[122] and the Cheyenne, amongst others. To the Apache and Walapai of Arizona, the wail of the cougar was a harbinger of death.[123] The Algonquins and Ojibwe believe that the cougar lived in the underworld and was wicked, whereas it was a sacred animal among the Cherokee.[124]

Livestock predation


Attacks on humans


Between 1890 and 1990, in North America there were 53 reported, confirmed attacks on humans, resulting in 48 nonfatal injuries and 10 deaths of humans (the total is greater than 53 because some attacks had more than one victim).[129] By 2004, the count had climbed to 88 attacks and 20 deaths.[130]

Within North America, the distribution of attacks is not uniform. The heavily populated state of California has seen a dozen attacks since 1986 (after just three from 1890 to 1985), including three fatalities.[83] Lightly populated New Mexico reported an attack in 2008, the first there since 1974.[131]


When cougars do attack, they usually employ their characteristic neck bite, attempting to position their teeth between the vertebrae and into the spinal cord. Neck, head, and spinal injuries are common and sometimes fatal.[6] Children are at greatest risk of attack, and least likely to survive an encounter. Detailed research into attacks prior to 1991 showed that 64% of all victims – and almost all fatalities – were children. The same study showed the highest proportion of attacks to have occurred in British Columbia, particularly on Vancouver Island where cougar populations are especially dense.[129] Preceding attacks on humans, cougars display aberrant behavior, such as activity during daylight hours, a lack of fear of humans, and stalking humans. There have sometimes been incidents of pet cougars mauling people.[133][134]

See also


Further reading

External links

Template:NIE Poster

  • Cougar Tracks: How to identify cougar tracks in the wild
  • National Geographic Society
  • Santa Cruz Puma Project
  • Eastern Puma Research Network
  • Felidae Conservation Fund
  • Cougar Rewilding Foundation, formerly "Eastern Cougar Foundation"
  • The Cougar Network --Using Science to Understand Cougar Ecology
  • Mountain Lion Foundation – Saving America's Lion
  • Sightings of cougars in Michigan
  • People and Cougar/Jaguars A Guide for Coexistence
  • 501(c)(3) site with extensive information about cougars, from how to live safely in cougar country, to science abstracts, hunting regulations, state-by-state cougar management/policy info, and rare photos and videos of wild cougars.