Monasticism (from Greek: monachos meaning "alone") is the religious practice of renouncing all worldly pursuits in order to devote one's life fully to spiritual work. Those pursuing a monastic life are usually called monks or brothers (male), and nuns or sisters (female). Both monks and nuns may also be called monastics.

Monastics usually take religious vows of poverty and celibacy in order to dedicate themselves to a life of disciplined religious practice. They can be found in almost every religion and are known for their single-minded devotion to the religious life.





Originally, monks were eremitic figures, living alone from the population to focus their time entirely on their religious pursuits. However, cenobitic orders of monks eventually developed, in which the monks lived together in communities. Thus, monasteries developed that were in a strange way oxymorons of sorts since they were "communities of loners," those who wished to withdraw from the world... but not entirely. A monastery became the dwelling of one or more monks.

Types of Monks

Saint Benedict of Nursia identified four kinds of monks in his Rule of St Benedict, which are still used today:

1. The cenobites live in community in a monastery, serve God under a religious rule and do so under the leadership of an abbot (or in the case of a community of women, an abbess). Benedict points out in chapter 1.13 that they are the "strong kind," which by logic of the context must mean the larger number rather than the better kind.



Mendicant Orders





Among other orders are the:

  • Discalced Carmelites
  • Servites (Order of Servants of Mary), founded 1233
  • Minims (Hermits of St. Francis of Paola), founded 1436
  • Capuchins (Order of Friars Minor Capuchin), established 1525
  • Brotherhood of Saint Gregory (an Anglican order) founded 1969

Cross-Cultural Examples

Many religions have monastic groups, including Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, and Jainism, although their expressions differ considerably.

Buddhist Monasticism

The order of Buddhist monks and nuns was founded by Gautama Buddha during his lifetime over 2,500 years ago. Initially consisting only of males, the Buddhist monastic order grew to include females after the Buddha's step-mother, Mahaprajapati, asked for and eventually received permission to live as an ordained practitioner. After the death of the Buddha, the Buddhist monastic order developed into a primarily cenobitic movement. The practice of living communally during the rainy season, required by the Buddha, gradually grew to encompass a settled monastic life centered on cenobium Most of the modern disciplinary rules followed by monks and nuns—the Patimokkha—govern in great detail, the proper methods for living in a community of monks or nuns. Within the sangha, the number of rules observed varies for monks and nuns: the nuns are expected to follow more rules than the monks.

Monks and nuns are expected to fulfill a variety of roles in the Buddhist community. They are expected to preserve the doctrine and discipline, provide a living example for the laity, and serve as a "field of merit" for lay followers. In return for the support of the laity, monks and nuns are expected to live an austere life focused on the study of Buddhist doctrine, the practice of meditation, and the observance of good moral character.

Young Buddhist monks in Tibet

A monk, known as a Bhikkhu in Pali or Bhikshu in Sanskrit, first ordains as a Samanera (novice) for a year or more. Novices often ordain at a very young age, but generally no younger than eight. Samaneras live according to the Ten Precepts, but are not responsible for living by the full set of monastic rules. Higher ordination, conferring the status of a full Bhikkhu, is usually given only to men who are aged twenty or older. Nuns follow a similar progression, but are required to live as Samaneras for a longer periods of time—typically five years.

The disciplinary regulations for monks and nuns are intended to create a life that is simple and focused, rather than one of deprivation or severe asceticism. In most Buddhist lineages, celibacy is of primary importance in monastic discipline, being seen as being the preeminent factor in separating the life of a monk from that of a 'householder'. Depending on the tradition and the strictness of observation, monastics may eat only one meal a day, provided either by direct donations of food from lay supporters, or from a monastery kitchen that is stocked (and possibly staffed) by donations from lay supporters.

Christian Monasticism

St. Anthony the Great, considered the Father of Christian Monasticism


Christian cenobitic monasticism as it is mainly known in the West started in Egypt. Originally, all Christian monks were hermits, and this continued to be very common until the decline of Syrian Christianity in the late Middle Ages. However, not everybody was fit for solitary life, and numerous cases of hermits becoming mentally unstable are reported. The need for some form of organized spiritual guidance was obvious, and around 300 C.E. Saint Anthony the Great started to organize his many followers in what was to become the first Christian monastery. Soon the Egyptian desert abounded with similar institutions.

The idea caught on, and other places followed:

  • St. Sabbas the Sanctified organized the monks of the Judean Desert in a monastery close to Bethlehem (483), and this is considered the mother of all monasteries of the Eastern Orthodox churches.



Hindu monasticism

An Indian sadhu with begging bowl and holy books.

In Hinduism, the terms Sadhu, Swami and Sannyasi refer to renunciates and spiritual masters, who have usually left behind all material attachments to live in forests, temples and caves all over India. The word "Sadhu" is the general term for a Hindu ascetic who has given up the pursuit of the first three Hindu goals of life: kama (pleasure), artha (wealth and power) and even dharma (duty), to solely dedicate himself to achieving moksha (liberation) through meditation and contemplation of God. The title Swami literally translates as "owner of oneself," denoting complete mastery over instinctive and lower urges. Many yogis and gurus (teachers) of the Hindu tradition hold the title of Swami as a sign of respect denoting spiritual accomplishment. Hindu Sadhus are easily recognized by their saffron robes. Vaishnava monks shave their heads except for a small patch of hair on the back of the head, while Shaivite monks in most traditions let their hair and beard grow uncut.


Sadhus and Swamis occupy a unique and important place in Hindu society. Vedic textual data suggests that asceticism in India—in forms similar to that practiced by sadhus today—dates back to 1700 B.C.E.. Thus, the present-day sadhus of India likely represent the oldest continuous tradition of monastic mystical practice in the world.





Jain Monasticism

The religion of Jainism has two branches (Digambara and Shevtambara) with different views of monasticism. Digambara monks do not wear clothing but they do not consider themselves to be nude since they see themselves wearing the environment. Digambaras believe that ascetic practice represents a refusal to give in to the body's demands for comfort and private property. Digambara ascetics have only two possessions: a peacock feather broom and a water gourd. They also believe that women are unable to obtain moksha.

The Shvetambaras are the other main Jain lineage. Svetambaras, unlike Digambaras, neither believe that ascetics must practice nudity, nor do they believe that women are unable to obtain liberation. Shvetambaras are commonly seen wearing face masks so that they do not accidentally breathe in and kill small creatures.





Other religions


Sikhism specifically forbids the practice of monasticism. Hence there are no Sikh monks or brotherhoods.

Some Sufi orders of Islam are mendicant ascetics who have taken the vow of poverty. Though some of them are beggars by choice, others work in regular professions such as the Egyptian Qadirites who are fishermen. There are also various dervish brotherhoods who trace their origins from various Muslim saints and teachers, especially Ali and Abu Bakr. They live in monastic conditions, similar to Christian monk brotherhoods.

Yungdrung Bön is believed to have a rich monastic history. Bön monastaries exist today, however, the monks there practice Bön-Buddhism.


  1. Bill Porter. Road to Heaven: Encounters With Chinese Hermits. Mercury House, 1993. ISBN 9781562790417
  2. Philo, On The Contemplative Life ch. III.


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