Soapbox Unless otherwise identified, all major entries in Soapbox are by Tom Mudloff. Comments will be accepted from “Anonymous,” though signed remarks are very much appreciated. Naturally, abusive or inappropriate comments will be deleted.<br/><br/>WELCOME TO THE SOAPBOX! <br/> iWeb 3.0.4 Kush 6abb69cb-9e6f-436a-b4f0-6ce8f228df2d Tue, 15 Sep 2009 12:13:53 -0400 Kush is usually defined as the area known as Upper Nubia and more directly, the specific region around Kerma and the Third Cataract of the Nile. There is evidence to suggest that, during the time of the Hyksos, Kush and its kings had come to a level of power that the Seventeenth Dynasty in Thebes found unacceptable. The Kingdom of Kush was the principal obstruction to complete Egyptian control of Nubia. On one of a pair of stelae set up in Karnak, Kamose, the last king of the Seventeenth Dynasty, lets us know that he is quite dissatisfied with the state of affairs whereby he must share control of the country with an Asiatic on the one hand and a Nubian on the other. The inscription on the stela makes it clear that such a division of the land will not continue.<br/><br/><br/><br/>It is evident from Kamose’s words that he considered Nubia to be a part of Egypt. An intercepted letter from the Hyksos king Apopis to the king of Kush, invites him to invade the Theban kingdom from the south at the time that Kamose is warring against the Hyksos holdings. The letter states that Apopis will hold Kamose in check while Kush attacks from the south and none will oppose them. From this we can see that Kush had developed as a kingdom of considerable strength and importance. <br/> <br/>Upper Nubian excavation has revealed evidence that Kerma was the capital of the Kingdom of Kush. The site of Kerma stands at the beginning of the Dongola Reach, an area that is exceptional for the Nubian Nile in that it is a rich agricultural area with a broad flood plain, which allowed for the growth and maintenance of a large population and the accumulation of wealth. The town, situated near to the river, contained brick houses in more than one occupational phase. There are also traces to the south of what may have been substantial fortifications surrounding the town with a moat and walls of stone and brick construction. The main feature of the town is a structure referred to as the Western Defuffa. This structure appears to be a sort of castle in the shape of an L made of solid mud brick. Here, in its latest building phase, was a staircase that rose up from a courtyard, opposite of which was a building wing made of baked mud brick which is the oldest known example of such brick in the Nile Valley. <br/><br/><br/><br/>The royal necropolis at Kerma, sited northeast of the plain, is contemporary with the Hyksos in Egypt. It extends into the desert for more than a kilometer and is about 750 meters wide. Behind this cemetery on the desert plateau are locater tumulus graves from the Classic Kerma phase at the end of a long sequence of burials. Three of these are large and show internal structures of mud brick and feature subsidiary graves. The burials lay on a bed and were surrounded by numerous grave goods.The bodies were of humans, mostly female, and rams. In some instances the bodies of humans were up to twelve in number. These graves indicate a high point in Kerma culture.<br/><br/>The evidence here indicates that life at this time for the nobility was rich indeed. It was largely patterned upon the Egyptian court, which set the standard at this time. There was abundant wealth as indicated by the remains in the graves. Most of the gold was taken by plunderers, of course, but what has remained speaks of a society rich in material wealth. The source of this wealth must have been a monopoly on the Nubian gold trade by the kings of Kush during the period. This would have allowed them to attract the finest craftsmen and soldiers. Also, in matters of trade, Kush must have grown to great importance due to the caravan route through the western oases, which allowed Kush to trade directly with the Hyksos, bypassing Thebes entirely. The relative modesty of the burials at Thebes from the Seventeenth Dynasty may be an indication of this lack of trade.<br/><br/>Material from the Classic Kerma phase and Kush has been seen far to the south and also in Lower Nubia, where it forms a cultural component coeval with the Hyksos and the Seventeenth Dynasty. That cultural compatibility comes to an end with the beginning of Theban hostilities with the Hyksos and Kush. The Kamose stela indicates a military campaign directed against Kush by year three of Kamose and the autobiography of Ahmose, Son of Abana, tells of such expeditions against Nubians (see blog entry on Avaris). It has not yet been determined when Kerma fell, however the graves in the necropolis are the last burials of the Kerma kings. <br/> (Photographs by Ihab Zaki)<br/> <br/> <br/><br/> Avaris e533b34a-86af-4613-813b-8ebf0e7345af Sat, 5 Sep 2009 14:13:55 -0400 From the wall of his early Eighteenth-dynasty tomb at El-Kab, Ahmose, Son of Abana, who was a distinguished military man, tells us how he followed his king into battle when the town of Avaris was besieged by the Egyptians. The king took note of him for his bravery against the Hyksos and awarded him the “gold of valor” for his exploits. Such military autobiographies are rare in Egyptian tombs and Ahmose’s provides us with one of the only written records of this campaign. It gives insight into this period of Egyptian history and the life of a man who rose through the ranks when animosity ran high in the country.<br/> <br/>After enduring years of the humiliation of having the Hyksos controlling a large portion of the land, the Theban king, Ahmose I, finally succeeded in overthrowing the city of Avaris, their capital. The site is located in the eastern Delta and is known in Arabic as Tell el-Daba. The presence of the Hyksos in Egypt and indeed, the entire period itself, is best represented at the site of Avaris. Around 1785 B.C.E. the Twelfth dynasty lost control of the country and occasioned the rise of the Thirteenth dynasty at Thebes while a Fourteenth dynasty arose at the delta town of Khasuu. The Hyksos, themselves located in the delta, then gave rise to the Fifteenth and subsequent Sixteenth dynasties at Avaris. Manetho then recognizes a Seventeenth dynasty (again in Thebes) and gives us the dynastic history, at least of the Hyksos period, as 1650 to 1540 B.C.E.<br/><br/>In geographic terms, the site of Avaris itself lies in the northeastern Nile delta at the Pelusiac branch of the Nile. This would have been an especially strategic location for contact with the eastern Mediterranean where both sea and land routes join. The site actually consists of three mounds with the central one showing evidence of a large town of Twelfth-dynasty date. This town expanded in size during the Thirteenth and Fifteenth dynasties. It is on this site that archaeological evidence shows a palace and several associated structures and at least three occupational levels that can be attributed to the kings of the Fifteenth dynasty, i.e. the Hyksos. It must be remarked, however, that no specific king can be identified with this residential complex, and in fact may represent an aggrandized example of an elite house of the Middle Kingdom. <br/><br/>According to Manetho, a Hyksos king named Salitis was the first king of the Fifteenth dynasty and hailed from the ancient capital of Memphis. It is probable that he came from a family of local rulers of Avaris belonging to the Fourteenth dynasty. As such the actual power base remained at Avaris. At this time a rapid expansion of the city can be seen to several times its original size. This expansion was undoubtedly due to an influx of population from the area of southern Canaan.<br/><br/>The Turin Papyrus gives the information that the Hyksos ruled for around one hundred years and that the next to last ruler reigned for something in excess of forty years. This king has been identified as Auserre Apopis whose lengthy reign can be verified by the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus where a regnal date of year thirty-three is indicated. Additionally he must be placed towards the end of the period since he was contemporaneous with kings Seqenenre-Tao II and Kamose, the last two kings of the Seventeenth dynasty. Finally, Apopis is attested from the palace area at Avaris, his name appearing on a house altar of contemporary date, of two of his subjects.<br/><br/>The late Hyksos period at Avaris shows us a large structure that has been called a “citadel” at the western edge of the site. This places it at the eastern bank of the Pelusaic branch of the Nile, and shows a wall constructed of mud brick just slightly over six meters in width. This wall was later expanded to eight and a half meters in width and shows rectangular bastions slightly larger than five meters wide at a distance of about twenty meters separation from one another. Behind these walls gardens were found in two levels and an upper level showing pits for bushes that probably was the foundation of a vineyard laid out in a pergola system. Assuming that such a fortification was not just to protect a garden, we may conclude that all this belonged to palatial architecture of the Hyksos period. <br/><br/>There are other indications at Avaris for a Hyksos “stronghold” and these can be seen in the debris above the garden level. Finds such as pieces of columns, the roof of a kiosk, and fragments of royal statues are among some of the material found. While some of this material may date from the time of Ahmose, objects with royal inscriptions from the Hyksos period were also found within the area. Lastly, an altar showing the names of Auserre Apopis and his royal sister Tany were found in a modern canal that travels through this area. <br/> <br/> <br/> <br/><br/><br/><br/> Under the Stars of Egypt: The Sky Goddess Nut and the Birth of Re a7119d4d-5116-4701-b904-19ff7d3ddf02 Sat, 3 Feb 2007 12:12:58 -0500 The Egyptians, like many other ancient cultures, were watchers of the skies. Early on it is certain that the cycle of the sun was observed by the Egyptians in the Delta region as it moved from north to south approaching the Winter solstice and then back north again. The sun actually moves<br/> from N. 65 degrees E. at the Summer solstice to N. 118 degrees E. at the Winter solstice. This would have been important to the people living in Lower Egypt, north of modern day Nut Ceiling, Ramesses VISaqqara, as the home of the cult of Re is located at Heliopolis in the Delta. From their position in the north, the priests of this Photo by Paul Kloppenborgearly solar cult would have observed the Click on picture to enlargesun as it traveled from Lower to Upper Egypt and back and they surely would have counted the days necessary to make the round trip.<br/><br/>In the south a different circumstance probably existed. Here the rising of the dog star Sirius or Sothis in the Greek, would have been observed as the herald of the coming Nile flood which was so important to this agricultural society. The problem that they would have observed is that the star appears sometimes before or sometimes after the rising of the Nile. It is probable that this led to a counting of the lunar phases occurring between risings of the star and the Nile as they both occurred following 12 and sometimes 13 lunar phases.<br/><br/>In both cases, north and south, timing was critical. These events, Winter solstice and rising of Sirius, were the marker of the New Year and important feasts were celebrated at this time. It is these observations that gave rise to the very popular Egyptian myth concerning the sky goddess Nut and the birth of the sun god Re.<br/><br/>The goddess Nut is the personification of the sky. She stretches from horizon to horizon and represents the two sky’s envisioned by the Egyptians; one above and one below the earth. This idea was most probably visualized by the Egyptians as they viewed the Milky Way where the stars appear to be of female form when observed over the course of a year. At the constellation of Cygnus (Northern Cross), the apparition seems to split and form the legs of the goddess. The expansion and surrounding celestial cloud, which occurs at the constellation of Gemini, forms the head and headdress which is so often seen in Egyptian art. The bright stars of the constellations along the way form her body.<br/><br/>If one were to step back in time to about 4500 b.c.e., an amazing sight would have been seen. At about 7:15 in the evening at the spring (vernal) equinox, as the sky darkens and the Milky Way becomes visible, the goddess’s head can be seen passing through the horizon with her head face up and her mouth open. The sun had set about an hour and a half earlier and would have presented the Egyptians with her still faintly glowing head with open mouth just above the horizon. This scene is often represented on the ceiling of New Kingdom royal tombs of the 20th Dynasty (most notably that of Ramesses VI, KV9), and the idea of her swallowing the solar disk was considered by the Egyptians to be the moment of conception for the sun god Re. One can only imagine the excitement that this sight must have held for them.<br/> <br/>The scenario just described was surely a breathtaking moment for the Egyptians but what followed most certainly is an indication of celestial observation giving rise to mythological concept. On the morning of the following Winter solstice the constellation Cygnus appears approximately two hours before sunrise on the eastern horizon. At approximately 7:05 AM on this date the sun rises and so the goddess is somewhat higher in the sky and invisible. However, to the ancient Egyptian “hour watcher “ (imyw wnwt), as the priests who kept track of these celestial events came to be known, the observation of an arc drawn from the north celestial pole through the star Deneb in the constellation of Cygnus, and continued to a point on the horizon, would mark the exact point of sunrise. This, indeed, is the shortest path the sun would follow after exiting the birth canal of the goddess Nut and in fact represents the very way in which Egyptian women gave birth according to ancient depictions. The morning of the Winter solstice is the only time when all three of the above mentioned points will lie on this great circle. The Egyptians call this day ‘ mswt Re’ or the Birth of Re. The name survives as the name of the last month of the ancient Egyptian lunar calendar; “mswt Re-Hr-akhty.”<br/><br/>The remarkable aspect of this is that it is 272 days from the time of conception at the Spring equinox to the day of birth at the Winter solstice. This corresponds to the period of human gestation. Evidence for this belief is later seen in the Pyramid Texts (402), and to a 5th Dynasty story found in the Papyrus Westcar which tells us that the first three kings of the 5th Dynasty were the result of a union between the sun god and the wife of a priest of the cult of Re. This is reflected in later mythological conceptions of Egyptian kings, as the divine king was seen in artistic representations to impregnate the queen in a mimicking of the celestial event.<br/><br/>Having personal experience in the desert of Egypt and having spent many nights under the stars there, I believe full well that what has just been put forward is a most likely scenario. There are few places that show the night sky in more starkness than the desert of Egypt. To experience it is to be opened to a world of wonder. The Egyptian inhabited a universe made up of beings and not things and all observed phenomena are explained in a biological way and not in the abstractions to which we have become accustomed. Unfortunately, in many ways the Egyptian method of explanation does not satisfy our need to explain the origins of our universe. However, this is surely a problem of the communicated form and not one of the content. <br/><br/>Many will decry that this ancient civilization had the necessary ability to develop ideas such as a myth of this sort and the ability to tie it in so well with actual celestial observations on this scale. I would posit that this is a problem that arises from our perspective and not an ancient one. If we fail to allow for these civilizations so far removed from us the ability to achieve insights on a larger level, it stems from our inability to accept their expertise in matters such as this.<br/> <br/>To the skeptic I would say that you discount their ability at your own risk. In order to better appreciate the intellectual content of the ancient thought and ideas we must look behind the images themselves for the concepts that they were meant to convey. It is the metaphor for that which lies behind the world available to our senses. Through myths such as this the Egyptians attempt to show us that divinity is present within the world. It is up to us to recognize their message. <br/> <br/> <br/> Hey, Let’s See your Union Cards! Report Concrete Used in Pyramid Construction,_Lets_See_your_Union_Cards%21Report_Concrete_Used_in_Pyramid_Construction.html d9e0cf0c-aa11-40ad-b341-cdfcc9af9ccf Wed, 13 Dec 2006 20:06:12 -0500 <a href=",_Lets_See_your_Union_Cards%21Report_Concrete_Used_in_Pyramid_Construction_files/Pyramid.jpg"><img src="" style="float:left; padding-right:10px; padding-bottom:10px; width:183px; height:137px;"/></a><br/>Recently there was a report in the Chicago Tribune (Dec.1st 2006), that in new research on the Pyramids at Giza Egypt some of the massive blocks appear to be made of concrete. This would predate the use of this material by the Romans by about some 2500 years. The study was run by Michel Barsoum from Drexel University in Philadelphia and concluded that this was, at least in part, an explanation of how the Egyptians were able to complete these massive monuments. <br/><br/>According to his report Barsoum states that the Egyptians used concrete blocks on the outer and the inner casings and most likely on the upper levels where it would have been difficult to haul the massive carved stones. He states that this ancient concrete technology is “simply astounding.” If true, this would be an understatement indeed!<br/><br/>Barsoum bases his findings on mineral samples taken from a number of places on the Khufu pyramid. Apparently the finding here was that the mineral ratios present do not exist in any of the known natural limestone sources. He states that (in an evocation of the principle known as Ocam’s Razor) the “simplest explanation“ is that it is cast concrete. Further Barsoum states in his report that samples taken from the Khufu pyramid included bits and a small block from the outer casing and an inner casing slab as well as pieces from another pyramid. Additionally he says that he has yet to sample material from some blocks that appear to be fairly uniform and which he speculates are concrete. His report appears in the December 2006 issue of the Journal of the American Ceramic Society. <br/><br/>A geologist from Columbia University named David Walker, who has read the report said that the examination of the material microscopically did “reveal things you wouldn’t expect to find in normal limestone.” However Zahi Hawass, the secretary general of antiquities in Egypt, said that “the idea that concrete was used is unlikely and completely unproven.” Hawass also notes that the pyramids have been restored and reinforced on many occasions with the extensive use of concrete and asks just where did Barsoum get his samples from and how can he show that the samples are not taken from areas that have been restored in modern times? There are some other questions that should also be asked in a more historical and perhaps archaeological line of questioning. <br/><br/>First, it is a well known fact that the Egyptians were a people who made records of just about everything that they did, both individually and as a society. In all my years of hanging in and out of the tombs of Egypt I have yet to come across any indication of people identified as “makers of concrete” or something similar, either in tomb depictions or in the writing. On their tomb walls, such as those at Saqqara (Mereruka, Kagemi, Neferbauptah, Iymery, etc) or at Luxor (tomb of Ipy which abounds with pictures of the trades, or the tombs of El-Kab which show us many different trades) we see nothing of this profession. Surely, one might believe, that something as important as this would be shown to us somewhere.<br/><br/>Secondly, this is never mentioned in the literature at all. Such tales as the “Satire of the Trades” which mentions a host of occupations are completely silent on this. Additionally, there is no formula found for the preparation of something that we or the Egyptians themselves would consider to be concrete. The Egyptian language gives no known equivalent to this either.<br/> <br/>Now it is a fact that the Egyptians used a type of mortar made of gypsum. Evidence of this mortar can be seen at the pyramids of Giza and include fired reddish clay particles and sometimes fragments of stone tools, copper bits from chisels, and pot shards in the mix. Also, this mortar can contain small bits of charcoal which came most likely from the fires used to heat the gypsum. Just a quick examination of the pyramids at Giza will show that great amounts of this mortar were used in the construction of these pyramids. This is evident even to the untrained casual eye! <br/> <br/>Lastly, one would think that if the use of concrete on this scale was undertaken, then we would also find examples of it in many other applications where large blocks were necessary for construction, such as temples. To date I have heard of no suggestions to this possibility. I for one must remain skeptical of this study and will have to be presented with much more that what is put forward here. While this is an interesting idea I have personally been at and in and over these pyramids many times in the last 25 years and have not been impressed with the notion that this type of construction, where it appears, was anything but a modern reconstruction or repair made in recent times. <br/> The “House of Life” 458c89de-9043-4e0a-bd58-84618c1b099b Mon, 6 Nov 2006 13:25:05 -0500 The institution that the Egyptians called the “House of Life’”still presents us as something of a mystery today. In an uncharacteristic way, the Egyptian does not present us with much detail on this enigmatic establishment. What is known from reference is that a House of Life existed in conjunction with all major temples. Here is where the sacred wisdom was developed. Old and new texts were studied, copied and assembled here and perhaps this was a place of instruction, although this is still an open question. <br/><br/>The preparing of religious works was a necessary part of the process of development in cultic practices. Equally important was the development of the texts of theology or liturgy as it related to each particular temple’s ritual life. It must always be kept in mind that religion in ancient Egypt was never a unity in a canonical sense. New material was being introduced continuously and old ideas and writings were being absorbed and integrated into the new thought. Such writings as magical books of protection (dream interpretations, Book of the Dead), astronomical tables and the books of the underworld were the product of this institution. It is here that discussions of philosophical and religious problems were held and also training in the art of medicine.<br/><br/>It is known from writings of later periods that each House of Life possessed a medical department. A statue base from the time of Darius in the Persian period relates to a certain ‘chief physician’ (wr swnw) Udjeharresnet, who is given an order to “restore the department(s) of the House of Life after they had fallen into decay.” Further he was told to “revive all that are sick.” This inscription points to the practice of medicine at the House of Life. The statue goes on to speak of “all the gods, all the staff, all the crafts, all their talent, and all their apparatus.” This constitutes a fairly comprehensive statement of the activities that were pursued there. <br/> <br/>The idea has often been voiced that this place then acted as a school or training college of sorts. This seems to not be the case as Udjeharresnet explicitly says that its purpose was for the members to “exercise all their crafts.” The references to teaching are almost non existent. There are references to new recruits of “good birth” who would be under the charge of men of solid learning. This is the closest that he comes to mentioning teachers in any way. In fact, there is nothing in Pharaonic times that corresponds to a school as we would recognize it. The system at that time was of the apprentice and master type and education would have taken place in whatever profession had been chosen for a person. It appears only in very late times that priestly education had a more formal character to it. The Tebtunis Papyrus states that a candidate for priesthood has to pass an examination and this is not mentioned previously. <br/> <br/>References to the House of Life are infrequent in the Old Kingdom but not unknown. Two royal decrees from the time of Pepi II of 6th Dynasty date make reference to the “apparatus of the House of Life” and additionally false door stelae of Old Kingdom date refer to their owners as “scribe of the House of Life.” In the Middle Kingdom the House of Life is mentioned in an inscription on a stone block from a temple at El-Tod, “Khnum, Lord of the House of Life” (Eleventh Dynasty) and from the tomb of prince Montuhotep, “Master of Secrets (administrator) of the House of Life.” The New Kingdom also exhibits references to the institution in the form of bricks stamped with the glyph indicating the House of Life at Amarna. These were located about 400 meters south of the main temple and approximately 100 meters east of the small temple at the site. In the Nineteenth Dynasty the indications become more numerous and by the Twentieth Dynasty even more so. The famous Papyrus Leiden of Ramesside period date includes two spells of a magical nature and was intended for the use of the living. The context indicates that these came within the scope of the House of Life. <br/><br/>Texts from the second hour of the Book of the Amduat (Netherworld) indicate that these spells are “offered to upon earth in their names. It is beneficial for a man upon earth. Truly attested a million times.” Edward Wente states in his article on “Mysticism in Pharaonic Egypt,” (Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 41, vol.3, 1982) that mortuary literature was known and used by people on earth; living Egyptians. This sort of material was a product of the House of Life. Many more such references are also found in the ancient writings. Moving forward to the Graeco-Egyptian and Roman times, more references are found than at any previous period. <br/><br/>From the collected material we may conclude that the House of Life was neither a school nor a university, and most likely it was a type of scriptorium where books relating to religion, magic, medicine and related matters were compiled. As the Christian era approached, there was a noticeable increase in the frequency of mention of the House of Life. This may be due to an increasing differentiation between religious and secular matters. Hieroglyphic and hieratic writing becomes referred to a “writing of the House of Life.” Secular documents, such as letters, were written in what is termed demotic at this period. Knowledge of this sacred language and writing was held very close by the priests as it was thought to contain unlimited power through the usage of sounds and words. This writing contained the make up of the sacred wisdom and the spiritual techniques. <br/> <br/>While we seem to know something of the scribes and staff of the House of Life, actual hard information on the institution itself is scanty. We actually hear of the House of Life at Amarna, Abydos and Edfu, but there is no information concerning who is the head of it or how it was financed. They do not seem to possess libraries of their own as these were located, to some extent, in the temples themselves. As mentioned, Edfu temple (see above), had a famous library which contained two lists of books inscribed on the walls. Nearly all of the books mentioned were of a magical or religious nature. It could be argued however, that all books of religion were magical in character. But in point of fact, of all the libraries known only one mentions the House of Life and then only in passing. No room in any temple can be identified with the pr-ankh or House of Life.<br/><br/>The evidence at Amarna and also at Edfu point to a separation of the House of Life from the temple proper. There is a reference found in the temple at Edfu that relates instructions that one should “proceed to the hall of the House of Life” then spend the night in this place. The impression here is that the House of Life is not in the temple at all, but some distance removed. The purpose of the visit, according to the reference (Chassinat, Temple d’Edfou, V, 135, II. 44-5: see Brugsch translation, Drei Fest-Kalendar, p. 15.), is to obtain an interpretation of some kind from the learned attendants there. <br/><br/>In any case, the question still remains that the books of the House of Life may have been looked upon as sacred books. The hieroglyphic inscriptions denote as much when they refer to these writings as ntr mdj3t or “divine books.” Was it Egypt then that first put the idea of the word of god into man’s mind? In much of Egyptian literature the idea persists of becoming one with God, a gnosis (obtaining knowledge) of sorts, and the idea of performing rituals as outlined in the Amduat for benefit on earth. The idea of bringing the creative force forward from the time of creation into the present in order to maintain life on a medical-magical basis, and the fact that the scribes of the House of Life are included in the ranks of priests open many paths of speculation and wonder.