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Motivational Languaging for L2 Learning and Motivation

This paper focuses on the effect of motivational languaging activities (MLAs) on EFL learning motivation. Swain (2006) defines languaging as “the process of making meaning and shaping knowledge and experience through language” (p. 98). We extend Swain’s original notion to L2 motivation; through MLAs, L2 learners are encouraged to talk or write about the importance of L2 learning and their visions in their own words. Various types of activities were implemented for elementary, junior high, and high school students: 1) written, 2) spoken, and 3) spoken plus written activities, in individual or group conditions. By using questionnaires, students’ motivational changes including their ideal L2 self and the ought-to L2 self (Dörnyei, 2009) were measured at the beginning and the end of the participation in the activities. The results indicated that students in experimental groups exhibited various increases in their motivations, compared to no significant changes in control groups. Furthermore, the written form proved to be a more effective type of activities, especially when students engaged in it individually. Findings suggest the usefulness of MLAs for enhancing L2 learning motivation.


INTRodUCTIoN
This paper examines the effect of motivational languaging on English as a foreign language (EFL) learning among elementary and secondary school students in South Korea (hereafter Korea). In Korea, students are required to learn English as a major foreign language from Grades 3 to 12. Additionally, English is one of the major subjects included in the College Scholastic Ability Test (CSAT), which has functioned as a crucial determiner for university admission (Kwon et al., 2017). Under the circumstances, the importance of English learning has been emphasized among Korean students and school parents. According to Statistics Korea (2019), approximately 20 billion dollars were spent on private education, with English accounting for the most substantial portion of the expense, when compared to other fields of study. Contrary to the seemingly high interest in English learning, a decreasing pattern in English learning motivation was consistently found from elementary to secondary school years (K.-J. T.-Y. Kim, 2019;Song & Kim, 2017). Furthermore, Kim and Kim (2016) revealed that L2 learning motivation related to the desire to occupy a better social position than peers was becoming increasingly influential among high school students in Korea, while the influence of their overall motivation for English achievement gradually decreased over time. In order to tackle the problems described above, motivational interventions seem to be a worthwhile solution for Korean EFL learners.
Consequently, by applying motivational languaging interventions, two classroom-based studies have been conducted in Korea. Motivational languaging indicates learners' engagement in talking or writing about their visions in language learning. The first study was carried out for elementary and junior high school students and was able to identify positive roles of motivational languaging in their EFL learning. Then, the second subsequent study was implemented with two purposes. First, we attempted to examine whether the same positive results can be found among high school English learners. Also, as written modes of motivational languaging were found more effective in the first study, we refined our research methods so that the effect of activities can be explored in a more comprehensive and elaborate way. In this paper, the methods and results of two studies are presented and discuss

PoSSIBlE SElvES, vISIoN, ANd MoTIvATIoN
Possible selves are seen as "visions of the self in a future state" and considered to "orient current choices and behavior" (Oyserman & James, 2009, p. 373). They can take various forms, such as the healthy self that one would like to attain or the unhealthy, smoking self that one would like to avoid. When those possible selves, especially positive ones, are represented as a mental image and function as a personal vision, this would contribute to personal development by "giving meaning to one's life", "helping to make shifts in professional careers" or "coaching yourself in realising a personal dream" (van der Helm, 2009, p. 98). In the field of educational psychology, interventions have been carried out with the assumption that balanced academic possible selves are critical for motivating actions at school (e.g., Altintas et al., 2020;Hock et al., 2006;Oyserman et al., 2002).
In the field of L2 learning, by discussing language learning motivation from the perspectives of learners' self-concept and vision of possible selves, Dörnyei (2009) proposed the L2 Motivational Self System. The framework consists of three components: the ideal L2 self, the ought-to L2 self, and L2 learning experience. The ideal L2 self refers to "the L2-specific facet of one's 'ideal self'" (Dörnyei, 2009, p. 29), representing positive future self-images that one would like to achieve as a consequence of successful L2 learning. The ought-to L2 self is defined as "the attributes that one believes one ought to [emphasis in original] possess to meet expectations and to avoid [emphasis in original] possible negative outcomes" (Dörnyei,p. 29). It is related to various duties, obligations, or responsibilities to meet the expectations of significant others (e.g., parents, teachers, or peers). L2 learning experience is "related to the immediate learning environment and experience (e.g., the impact of the teacher, the curriculum, the peer group, the experience of success)" (Dörnyei,p. 29). It has been revealed that learners whose ideal L2 self comes into play in their language learning are likely to have a better chance at exhibiting motivated behavior and achieving strong L2 proficiency (e.g., Islam et al., 2013;Papi & Teimouri, 2012;Rajab et al., 2012). Given this, it would be worthwhile, in designing motivational activities, to focus on the ideal L2 self as one of the core constructs to be developed and improved.
L2 motivation researchers have tried to implement such intervention studies (e.g., Mackay, 2019;Magid & Chan, 2012;Munezane, 2015;Sato & Lara, 2019). For example, Magid and Chan (2012) attempted to enhance Chinese L2 learners' vision of their ideal L2 selves. Based on the possible selves literature, two types of programs were designed and carried out in England and Hong Kong with the same goal and some key components. One in England involved listing goals, drawing a timeline, developing action plans, and writing about feared selves, in relation to L2 learning. The other in Hong Kong included an activity called The Ideal Self Tree activity, where L2 learners were asked to draw the limbs of a tree representing the ideal L2-speaking person they would like to become and smaller branches growing from the limbs indicating their action plans. Besides the activities described above, the major component of both programs was scripted or guided imagery where L2 learners were asked to "imagine a scenario in which they had a positive experience using English, such as giving a successful presentation, writing an excellent essay or chatting in English fluently with a friend" (p. 117). It was found that the participants' ideal L2 self was strengthened after engaging the programs. Similarly, Mackay (2019) endeavored to use visualization techniques to help develop the ideal L2 self of EFL learners at a university language school in Spain, and found the positive effect of the intervention activities.
Influenced by the previous findings described thus far, our study centers on the powerful motivational function of envisioning the ideal L2 self. However, what differentiates this study from the previous ones is that we focus more highly on the power of language or talking-it-through in order to maximize the effect of vision intervention in L2 learning. For this purpose, we adopted languaging techniques. The next section addresses how it has been achieved.

MoTIvATIoNAl lANgUAgINg INTERvENTIoN
We begin with sociocultural perspectives on language and thought in explicating motivational languaging intervention in L2 learning. According to sociocultural theory, language reflects our thinking and has a metacognitive function. This indicates that, rather than a mere reflection or expression of thinking, language can even consolidate our thinking. In this regard, Vygotsky (1987) stated that "thought is not merely expressed in words; it comes into existence through them. Thought undergoes many changes as it turns into speech; it finds its reality and form" (p. 219). In other words, producing language can mediate or regulate our thinking process beyond the passive role of a conveyor of a message. Through the process of "talking-it-through" (Swain & Lapkin, 2002) to another, with another, or with the self, it is possible to come to a new understanding and a new insight. Based on this perspective, Swain (2006) suggested the concept of languaging, referred to as "making meaning and shaping knowledge and experience through language (Swain, 2006, p. 98). It is "a form of verbalization used to mediate the solution(s) to complex problems and tasks" (Swain et al., 2009, p. 5). Given the definitions above, not every verbalization can be regarded as languaging. Simple greetings or responding to greetings cannot be seen as a type of languaging. It requires cognitively challenging elements where conscious thinking occurs from the people engaging in the verbalization, in either the oral or written form. From the viewpoints described above, L2 learning studies applying languaging have revealed that learning can be facilitated when L2 learners use the target language as a tool to mediate their thinking in language-related activities (e.g., Ishikawa, 2013;Suzuki & Itagaki, 2009;Swain et al., 2009;Watanabe & Swain, 2007).
In this paper, it is assumed that the original concept of languaging concerned with cognitive changes in L2 learning can be extended into the purpose of bringing out affective and motivational changes among L2 learners. If learners have opportunities to reflect on and express their future self-images with desirable L2 proficiency through written and spoken forms of languaging, their L2 motivation can be reactivated and enhanced. In other words, the effect of visualization for L2 learning motivation enhancement can be ensured and maximized when learners speak or write about the visualized ideal images of using the target language. Therefore, motivational languaging can be referred to as the phenomenon of "coming-to-be-motivated-while-speaking/writing something" (T.-Y. . This phenomenon can also be compared with mere measurement effects. Mere measurement effects indicate that "the mere act of responding to surveys changes subsequent opinions and behaviour" (Morwitz, 2005, p. 452). Previous studies in social and consumer psychology have demonstrated that, by participating in a survey on a specific topic, one's interest in, or the chances of decision-making related to, the relevant topic, can be improved (e.g., Greenwald et al., 1987;Morwitz et al., 1993). When applying this effect to the context of this paper, by engaging in motivational languaging, L2 learners' interest in their L2 learning can be enhanced. By talking or writing about their ideal L2 self, the relevant vision can be strengthened. 1 Reflecting on the perspectives described so far, we applied motivational languaging techniques in two intervention studies whose participants ranging from elementary to high school students. In order to address the effectiveness of motivational languaging in L2 learning and motivation, the following research questions were postulated: To what extent is motivational languaging effective in enhancing elementary and secondary students' level of L2 learning motivation in Korea?
Which types of motivational languaging activities (MLAs) are useful for EFL learners?

METhodology
The intervention studies were conducted for elementary and junior high school students (Study 1) and for high school students (Study 2). In the studies, various types of MLAs were developed and implemented: 1) written MLAs, 2) spoken MLAs, and 3) spoken plus written MLAs in individual or group conditions. This section provides detailed information of the studies including participants, MLAs employed, and the methods of data collection and analysis.

Participants and Types of Motivational Languaging Activities
The total number of participants in Study 1 was 460 students from one elementary school (98 Grade 5 students) and two junior high schools (362 Grade 7 students) in the Seoul metropolitan area. In each school, intact classes were classified as either a control group or one of three experimental groups. Table 1 presents the types of activities in which each group engaged. All the reading, writing, or discussion activities were conducted in the participants' first language (L1), Korean. The participants in the three experimental groups carried out the activities for 15 minutes every other week, eight times in total throughout the semester. The activity for the control group was reading a short passage, for 5-10 minutes, regarding a Korean celebrity (e.g., famous sports star, diplomat) who speaks excellent English as an exemplary case of an L2 learner. Figure 1 presents the example of Mr. Ban Ki-moon, the former Secretary-General of the United Nations. The passages were on how the celebrities had learned English and what they thought was important for successful L2 learning.
As MLAs in this study are defined as "coming-to-be-motivated-while-speaking/writing something" phenomenon (T.-Y. , the main activities for experimental groups involve writing or speaking activities. More importantly, the activities were designed to elicit cognitively challenging elements by engaging the participants in conscious thinking about their English learning, based on Swain's (2006) conceptualization of languaging. The first and second experimental groups conducted individual writing activities with the activity workbooks developed and distributed to the two groups. In the first experimental group, the students maintained an English learning diary reflecting on what they had learned the other week on English classes and wrote about how they could relate what they had learned to their ideal images of using English in the future. By writing them down, it was assumed that the students would be able to externalize their opinions on their own English learning and realize their current learning situation and the relevance of English to their future dreams, if any.
With the activities associated with exemplary cases of successful L2 learners, the second and third experimental groups watched short video clips of English interviews or speeches provided by the exemplary celebrities. Then, the students in the second experimental group read the materials, an example of which is presented in Figure 1, and then wrote short reflective essays guided by several prompts in their activity workbooks. They were also asked to describe their desired ideal images of using English in the future. Similarly to the questions in the first experimental group's writing activities, those for the second experimental group were also assumed to impose conscious thinking process on the participants regarding the roles of English learning in their current and future lives and their opinion about them.

Figure 1. A Sample Page for Reading Materials used in Study 1 (originally written in Korean)
learned the other week on English classes and wrote about how they could relate what they had learned to their ideal images of using English in the future. By writing them down, it was assumed that the students would be able to externalize their opinions on their own English learning and realize their current learning situation and the relevance of English to their future dreams, if any.
With the activities associated with exemplary cases of successful L2 learners, the second and third experimental groups watched short video clips of English interviews or speeches provided by the exemplary celebrities. Then, the students in the second experimental group read the materials, an example of which is presented in Figure 1, and then wrote short reflective essays guided by several prompts in their activity workbooks. They were also asked to describe their desired ideal images of using English in the future. Similarly to the questions in the first experimental group's writing activities, those for the second experimental group were also assumed to impose conscious thinking process on the participants regarding the roles of English learning in their current and future lives and their opinion about them.

Figure 1. A Sample Page for Reading Materials used in Study 1 (originally written in Korean)
In the third experimental group, the students watched the video clips of the exemplary case and then engaged in a group discussion by sharing their thoughts and ideas regarding the exemplary cases and their desired future where they would use English. The prompts for the discussion were identical with the ones for the second experimental group; however, the questions were provided orally one by one by the teachers for the group discussion. That is, the process of externalizing their thoughts was carried out in the spoken form.
The participants in Study 2 were 334 Grade 10 students in a boys' high school located In the third experimental group, the students watched the video clips of the exemplary case and then engaged in a group discussion by sharing their thoughts and ideas regarding the exemplary cases and their desired future where they would use English. The prompts for the discussion were identical with the ones for the second experimental group; however, the questions were provided orally one by one by the teachers for the group discussion. That is, the process of externalizing their thoughts was carried out in the spoken form.
The participants in Study 2 were 334 Grade 10 students in a boys' high school located in a metropolitan area. A total of 10 intact classes (approximately 35 in each) in the high school were divided into one control and three experimental groups: two classes as the control group, four classes as the first experimental group, and two classes each as the second and third experimental groups. The students in the experimental groups spent six weeks engaging in the MLAs for 30 minutes once a week. As presented in Table 2, as the main activities for all of the experimental groups included written MLAs, activity workbooks were developed and distributed to them. The workbooks consisted of five chapters with different topics: English learning and future career, Korean high school students' English learning motivation, image training related to English learning (writing), image training related to English learning (drawing), and a self-diagnostic test for attitudes toward English learning. Each chapter comprised two parts: reading and writing sections. Specifically, in the reading sections, specific examples related to the chapter's topic were provided in Korean so that the learners could brainstorm and start to organize their thoughts referring to the examples. For example, as presented in Figure 2, in the reading section of the first chapter, a brief story of competent English users from Korea who distinguished themselves in their job and career was provided. The writing sections contained two or three prompts, in Korean, asking students to write their ideas and opinions in Korean. The first question in the writing section of the first chapter was about college majors or academic or technological fields that the students desire to study after graduating from high school and its relevance to English. The second prompt asked them to write about their desired future career and its relevance to English.

Figure 2. A Sample Page for Reading Materials used in Study 2 (originally written in Korean)
For the control group, only reading parts were distributed as a handout, and 5-10 minutes were spent for individual reading. For experimental groups, subsequent writing activities were provided to engage the learners in the languaging process. After reading, the first experimental group conducted individual writing guided by the prompts in their workbooks regarding their ideas and opinions on English learning and use. The second experimental group shared their own answers to the questions, in groups of four, and then wrote them down individually in the workbooks. The main activity for the third group was group writing, where four students discussed and wrote their groups' answers to the questions in the workbooks. The questions for this group were designed to elicit the groups' overall opinions. For example, for the writing section of the first chapter, the students were asked to share 'any fields of study or career paths that we, high school students, can pursue after graduation and the relevance of those fields to English.'

Data Collection
By using questionnaires, students' motivational changes were measured immediately before the first MLA session and immediately after the last session. The pre-and post-surveys on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree. were administered in Korean.
In Study 1, the questionnaire was developed based on Taguchi et al. (2009). A pilot study was conducted with 26 elementary and 43 junior high school students in June 2011 to assess the internal consistency of the questionnaire items. The final version included a total of 58 items for ten construct: the ideal L2 self (8 items, α=.936), the ought-to L2 self (8 7 section of the first chapter, a brief story of competent English users from Korea who distinguished themselves in their job and career was provided. The writing sections contained two or three prompts, in Korean, asking students to write their ideas and opinions in Korean. The first question in the writing section of the first chapter was about college majors or academic or technological fields that the students desire to study after graduating from high school and its relevance to English. The second prompt asked them to write about their desired future career and its relevance to English. items, α=.846), instrumentality (promotion) (7 items, α=.855), instrumentality (prevention) (7 items, α=.877), integrativeness (3 items, α=.715), cultural interest (4 items, α=.649), family influence (8 items, α=.851), attitude toward English learning (5 items, α=.886), attitude toward English-speaking community (3 items, α=.844), and motivated L2 learning behavior (5 items, α=.894).
In Study 2, the questionnaire was devised based on Taguchi et al. (2009), Asker (2011), and Toivakka (2010. As stated above, with the purpose of elaborating the way to explore the effect of written MLAs among high school students, we decided to include key elements that have been discovered to be beneficial for Korean high school students' EFL learning, rather than using a wider range of questionnaire items employed in Study 1. A total of 166 Grade 10 students participated in a pilot survey, and the final version included 46 items exhibiting six constructs: the ought-to L2 self (14 items, α=.938), the ideal L2 self (6 items, α=.896), the feared L2 self (6 items, α=.846), instrumentality (14 items, α=.917), intrinsic motivation (3 items, α=.859), and motivated L2 behavior (5 items, α=.903).

Data Analysis
The quantitative data obtained through the questionnaire surveys were analyzed using the SPSS 23.0. First, a one-way ANOVA was carried out to ensure that the four groups in each study were homogeneous when they began to participate in the studies. Accordingly, a comparison between the four groups including one control and three experimental groups was made on the pre-survey results. Second, paired samples t-tests were implemented to compare each group's pre-and post-results and determine if there were statistically significant changes in motivation after engaging in the MLAs.
As shown in Table 3, there were no statistically significant changes in motivation in the control group. Among the three experimental groups, significant motivational changes were found in Experimental Group 2, while Experimental Groups 1 and 3 did not exhibit significant changes. In Study 1, the MLAs for Experimental Group 1 were English learning diary, opinion writing for Experimental Group 2, and group discussion for Experimental Group 3. In Experimental Group 2, the students' ideal L2 self (d = 0.693), integrativeness (d = 0.601), and attitude toward English learning (d=0.937) showed statistically significant, positive changes after they engaged in the MLAs. The increase was greatest in their attitudes toward English learning, followed by the ideal L2 self. Next, pre-survey results among junior high school students were analyzed and significant differences were not found in the ideal L2 self (F=0.733; Sig.=.533), the ought-to L2 self (F=2.123; Sig.=.097), instrumentality (promotion) (F=0.552; Sig.=.647), instrumentality (prevention) (F=1.471; Sig.=.223), integrativeness (F=0.124; Sig.=.946), cultural interest (F=2.174; Sig.=.099), family influence (F=2.240; Sig.=.084), attitude toward English learning (F=1.156; Sig.=.327), attitude toward English-speaking community (F=0.378; Sig.=.769), and motivated behavior (F=1.810; Sig.=146.). Table 4 presents the results regarding the changes in motivation among the junior high school students in Study 1. There were no statistically significant changes in the control group and Experimental Group 3. However, statistically significant motivational changes were observed in Experimental Groups 1 and 2, respectively. To be specific, in Experimental Group 1, the level of students' ought-to L2 self significantly increased (d = 0.317), while their attitude toward English learning became less positive after engaging in the MLAs (d = 0.313). In Experimental Group 2, the participants' cultural interest in English-speaking communities exhibited a significant increase (d = 0.316). Finally, among the high school students in Study 2, a comparison of pre-survey results was conducted for one control and three experimental groups' L2 learning motivation; any statistically significant differences were not found between the four groups in the ought-to L2 self (F=1.565; Sig.= .198), the ideal L2 self (F=.710; Sig.=.546), the feared L2 self (F=.724; Sig.=.538), instrumentality (F=.866; Sig.=.459), intrinsic motivation (F=.285; Sig.=.836), and motivated behavior (F=.405; Sig.=.750). As presented in Table 5, the control group did not exhibit any statistically significant changes, while all the experimental groups did. The MLAs were individual writing for Experimental Group 1, individual writing after group discussion for Experimental Group 2, and group writing for Experimental Group 3. In Experimental group 1, the participants' ought-to L2 self (d = 0.223), ideal L2 self (d = 0.540), feared L2 self (d = 0.288), intrinsic motivation (d = 0.275), and motivated behavior (d = 0.457) statistically significantly increased after the MLAs. In Experimental Group 2, the students' ought-to L2 self (d = 0.316), intrinsic motivation (d = 0.430), and motivated behavior (d = 0.258) became significantly stronger.

dISCUSSIoN
The major focus of the MLAs employed in the two intervention studies was on helping learners visualize their ideal L2 self in the spoken or written form. We encouraged L2 learners to externalize their ideas related to the ideal L2 self rather than only mentally imagining them so that the vision can be more highly developed and strengthened. As a result, it was observed that the ideal L2 self became stronger and more vivid among the participating elementary school students who engaged in opinion writing and the high school students who took part in individual writing and group writing. Also, a larger number of motivating factors were found to be increased in the case of individual writing than group writing. Consequently, it can be stated that a more effective form of MLAs is the writing activity, especially when students engaged in it individually. In Jun and Kim's (2015) study on elementary school students, motivational languaging through a writing activity also proved to be more effective compared to the spoken form. The relatively high effectiveness of written MLAs was attributed to the level of cognitive load (van Merriënboer & Sweller, 2005). As Leppink and van den Heuvel (2015) suggest, lower cognitive load may not be always beneficial to learning, and the cognitive load needs to be raised to the optimally challenging level. Based on the results regarding the different effectiveness of the different types of MLAs, it seems that the form of individual writing provides a reasonably challenging amount of cognitive load, allowing the participating students to get the most of their experience with the motivational activities.
Furthermore, the effectiveness of individual writing MLAs for L2 motivation can be understood with close reference to reflective journals in previous L2 learning research as the writing as a type of instructional activity proved to be beneficial for L2 learning process. To be specific, reflective journals have been used to facilitate and scaffold L2 learning in various areas such as reading (Fagan, 2003;Lee, 2012) and academic essay writing (Wong & Storey, 2006). For example, in Wong and Storey (2006), 36 students taking an English writing course at a university in Hong Kong were asked to write reflective journals in English on their ideas and opinions regarding effective writing, by answering questions such as "What do you think the introduction of a problem-solving essay should do?" and "How would you organize the introduction of a problem and solution essay?" Those questions were designed to raise students' awareness of effective writing; when students reflect on how they think, learn, remember, and perform academic tasks and externalize their thoughts, their awareness and control over learning can be enhanced (Hartman, 2002). Likewise, through languaging, L2 learners engage in metacognitive reflections by writing their own ideas and opinions on the relevance of English to their future aspirations and L2-speaking self-images that they would like to achieve in the future. When students write those ideas in their own words, their awareness and control over their learning motivation can be improved, leading them to develop higher levels of motivation.
As presented above, the MLAs were designed, mainly focusing on the enhancement of the vision of the ideal L2 self. However, it may seem puzzling that the ought-to L2 self became stronger among some of the experimental groups. This phenomenon was observed among secondary school students. The level of junior high school students' ought-to L2 self significantly increased after their being engaged in the English learning diary activity. Also, among the high school participants, the role of the ought-to L2 self in their L2 learning motivation became stronger after they participated in the activities of individual writing and individual writing after group discussion. This seems attributable to the characteristics of EFL learning among secondary school students in Korea. They begin to learn English at school from Grade 3 at elementary school, and this initial learning stage involves interesting activities such as songs and games (K.-J. . As they move to secondary schools, however, English becomes one of the most important school subjects. Secondary school students need to take mid-term and final exams and occasional performance assessment for the English subject during a semester, and a majority of them are expected to take the English section of the CSAT at the end of Grade 12 (Y.-K. . Under this circumstance, it is likely that successful EFL learning is perceived as their duties as well as the means by which they can achieve their desired future images. Thus viewed, the ought-to L2 self reflects L2 learners' sense of obligations or responsibilities and consciousness of others' opinions regarding L2 learning. As the motivational activities in this study aimed to evoke and consolidate L2 learners' awareness of why they learn English, it would have been the case that the secondary school students paid more attention to the attributes that they ought to possess related to L2 learning and use. However, whether students need to be encouraged to develop a stronger ought-to L2 self requires careful scrutiny given the confounding results (Kim, 2012;Kim & Kim, 2012).

SUMMARy ANd IMPlICATIoNS
By means of the intervention studies conducted for elementary and secondary learners of English in Korea, this study investigated the effect of motivational languaging on L2 learning. The comparisons of pre-and post-results from the experimental groups indicated that the levels of various motivating factors were significantly improved, while those of the control group did not show statistically significant changes. Given this, motivational languaging proves to be an effective tool for enhancing students' L2 learning motivation. Moreover, it is suggested that the written form, particularly as an individual activity, is more beneficial.
The developed MLAs can be effectively used by practitioners willing to motivate their students. Notably, it may become less of a burden for teachers when individual writing MLAs are conducted with activity workbooks in class since the teachers would not need to guide group discussion or group writing. However, there could be some potential problems regarding the use of individual writing MLAs. It would be challenging to employ MLAs in class due to time constraints at some schools. It would also be demanding for a single teacher to produce activity workbooks for MLAs on a large scale, and therefore, practical assistance and managerial support are required at school, district, and national levels.