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The Stability and Instability Condition of Tourism and Hospitality (T&H) Curriculum Model

—The trends and promising outlook of the global tour and travel (T&T) industry over the next decade offer opportunities for tourism and hospitality (T&H) educators to react and prepare a knowledgeable, highly-skilled workforce. As such, T&H educational setting done by curriculum should distinguish a specific requirement for the principles, practices, and programs that differ from general education. However, the T&H domain of study is still growing and developing. Thus, literature examining curriculum issues or the pressures and changes affecting this important education sector remain relatively limited, particularly in the dynamic global changes of higher education (HE) policy. This article focuses on a T&H curriculum model approach in order to have a comprehensive understanding of the current context to study T&H knowledge creation and research development. It benefitted from a secondary data collection that covered a long-time span, events, and setting. The results and discussion offered the fact that the modernist approach dominates the curriculum model while at the same time produces a condition of instability for the future T&H HE agenda.


I. INTRODUCTION
The article adapted theories from both [1] toward HE curriculums and [2] on curriculum modelling to provide a theoretical framework of a contemporary T&H curriculum model from both modernist and post-modernist approaches. This article provides a critical review of literature that elucidates the T&H curriculum model approach in order to have the comprehensive understanding of the current context to study T&H teaching and learning processes, knowledge creation and research development as well as the educational approach. Additionally, the study identified knowledge gaps and potential future research in the area. As such, the tourism education at HE level is designed to identify a tourism-related influence by understanding social science worldviews, which reflect and recognize a plurality of social practices, positions, and insights within this subject which has both a business and a non-business orientation [3]- [8]. Thus, the hospitality HE courses attempted to disseminate knowledge and skill that demonstrated the dynamic thinking of hospitality in a commercial context and the important chemistry between broader disciplines, such as economic and business management, social science, and arts, which directly or indirectly support the aims and outcomes of the tourism industry [9]- [16]. Therefore, a curriculum is viewed as central to teaching and learning processes [17]. The article acknowledged that T&H teaching and learning processes have a strong relationship in terms of delivering and enabling development of both knowledge and skill for the learners to perform well upon graduation.
T&H scholars agree that the modern tourism industry began at the beginning of 1960s and has steadily grown in terms of income, and resilience in times of economic crisis, as well as generating a high number of employment opportunities [18]. Contemporarily, the industry remains one of the largest industries in the 21st century worldwide, with its total contribution expected to increase gross domestic product (GDP) by 3.9% and 2.5% of employment per year until 2027 [19]. Indeed, the industry is certainly an uninterrupted business sector in terms of decent work and economic development as it has recorded more than 1.2 million travellers in 2016 and shown on average a 4% increase per year for international tourist arrivals for the last seven straight years [20]. Moreover, on the educational landscape, [21] argued that T&H and event education has reached maturity in subject content and research during more than 40 years of development.
Despite that, the debates in balancing capabilities and knowledge concerning educational courses are still needed for better understanding [22]. The current condition of the T&H curriculum model was unknown since the literature examination towards the pressure and changes on T&H teaching and learning processes done by curriculum was relatively limited [23]. The UNESCO International Bureau of Education - [24] published the worldwide curriculum-related terminology, particularly in defining the curriculum model as "broad theoretical frameworks used to design and organize the curriculum according to certain principles and criteria".
The vein continued as [25] stated that a curriculum narrative is a complex and messy undertaking which attracted criticism not only from the educational and political traditionalist, but also from a broader social community as they become concerned on how people come to acquire the knowledge, skill, and value on discussing curriculum theory, making, and path of continuity. In this sense, the need to understand a comprehensive curriculum model at HE level could aid an educator in the process of planning, implementing, and evaluating curriculums that ultimately results in a curriculum plan, particularly for the teaching and learning process to function as the vehicle to equalize a skill and knowledge for T&H graduates to survive in the coming years. As such, in creating the future T&H education, [26] urged the educator to provide an educational process that could assist with critical understanding and creative, innovative thinking about complex problems, and to find a collaborative way towards addressing them (i.e. flexible production, curriculum and pedagogy). Indeed, this makes the T&H curriculum model approach crucial, particularly in the light of stability and instability conditions.
The study was structured in three sections, the beginning reviewed the current condition of T&H curriculum model from both of modernist and post-modernist approaches. Whereas the second part examined the existing T&H curriculum-related studies, which produce the instability conditions for curriculum model resolution. The final section ends this article with the conclusion and discussion to progress further theoretical and empirical research.
II. CURRICULUM STUDIES [27] claimed the study of curriculums was begun in the early 20th century to encompass the areas of school administration and teaching in designing and developing programs of study. [28] explained that curriculum studies deals with perspective, paradigms, and (1) inquiries around what a curriculum is and how it should be, (2) paradigms of curriculum inquiry and related questions, and (c) various opportunities created by curriculums, as well as a response to curriculum questions and frame setting, whether in educational theory or educational practice. For instance, [29]- [37] have shown an increased interest in a major changes in the world of education that have been taking place, driven by economic, political, environmental or even sophisticated industrial consumer demand which create challenges for the development of curriculum at HE level. Furthermore, [38], [39] argues that curriculum studies might have originated in the United States, but, that curriculum studies have been studied across the world that discuss particular issues such as history and culture, globalization, technological innovation, new science, and indeterminate curriculum progress. Therefore, the study about curriculums was necessary to analyze in the wider context, which was now found across all educational disciplines, as well as its effect upon the individual, society, and even conceptions of knowledge.

MODEL
In respect of the T&H discipline, [40] introduced and identified the four curriculum model typologies such as as (1) Chen and Groves' model, (2) Reigel and Dallas' approach, (3) Koh's model, and (4) Ritchie's hybrid model. [41] offered the critical approach for T&H curriculum model examination. But, at the same time, it raised the need for further discussion about the program content and quality of student preparedness, balance and areas in program curricula.
Across disciplines, curriculum researchers propose ways to launch and establish an examination study on a curriculum model (see [41], [42] with the content-driven model/objectivedriven model and process-driven model; and [43], [44] through deductive and inductive models). But, for the purpose of this study, [1] provided the way to look at curriculum models through two perspectives. First, the modernist rationale, also known as the technical-scientific model. Second, the postmodernist thinking that appreciates a nontechnical-nonscientific approach. The modernist/technical-scientific approach appreciates a high degree of objectives, logic and involves the task analysis process. The postmodernist/nontechnical-non-scientific model looks through subjective, personal, aesthetic and transactional values to embrace the heuristic, spiritual, social, and accepts the 'orderly disorder' approach. Additionally, [2] told the investigation study to characterize T&H curriculum models into four different models such as (1) the procedural, (2) the descriptive, (3) the conceptual, and (4) the critical-exploratory theoretical.
Therefore, as benefited from a broader view of curriculum studies, the suggestion and recommendation affecting the strategic approach on examining the T&H curriculum models has substantially influenced the current thinking to employ [1] on modernist and post-modernist perspectives and [2] modelling that was reinforced and described by [45] as below.
 The procedural model says planning and procedures can be carried out rationally  The descriptive model seeks to understand the complexity within the process, and puts T&H curriculum objectives in a less central position.
 The conceptual model says we need to focus upon "deep" issues and less on process  The critical-exploratory theorizer says we need a "reconceptualised" perspective, infused with new thinking, which seeks to form a new theory or to criticize existing conceptual schema and political structures.
The study and examination for more than a decade of T&H curriculum models were presented in Table 1 and was quite revealing in several ways.   Mainly, (87%) T&H curriculum developers adopted modernist perspectives within the procedural and the descriptive models.
 Only two studies utilized the descriptive model that understand the complexity within the process, and puts objectives in a less central position. This means that the T&H educators heavily focused upon the technicalscientific attitudes that focused on the planning and procedures of making the curriculum rational.
 Only three research studies (23%) were identified as postmodernist, which applied the conceptual model technique to focus upon 'deep' issues and less on process.
 Notably, none of the post-modernist's T&H curriculum developer were interested in making the curriculum through the critical-exploratory theorizer model. Therefore, the most obvious finding through the investigation and exploration of T&H previous curriculum models -since year 1995 that marked the curriculum study by both [47] in the United States and [71] in UK through the recent one by [69] -confirmed that the T&H educators followed the modernist approach with the procedural model as the mainstream strategy of making T&H curriculums. This creates the stability condition for T&H curriculum model reproduction.

IV. THE INSTABILTY CONDITION OF TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY
CURRICULUM MODEL [26] claimed that a post-industrial and a post-disciplinary world play as driving factors for the future of T&H education towards the development agenda. Furthermore, [70] , [21] , and [72] discussed the similar focus on the T&H discipline's future insights, which suggested a variety of T&H HE degrees in delivering the subject knowledge, recasting new ways of learning and engagement with their institution as well as acquiring the knowledge including the skill for learners' careers and self-development. Furthermore, [73] suggested that the role of T&H institutions which offer hospitality and/or tourism degree programs is critical to serve the future of business interests, service management and other government roles. Hence, one of the indicators for successful T&H HE principles and practices is the quality of graduates and retention of those graduates in the related industry [74] . Moreover, [75] pointed out that transparency and stakeholder's mutual agreement is required to the balance between vocational and academic institutional in order to produce a high-value tourism.
In contemporary studies, both [75] and [76] discussed T&H graduate employability and agreed on the mutual understanding of industry engagement that is critical to serve the future of business interests, service management and other government roles in the design and delivery of the curriculums to face the challenges of the 21 st century. [72] concurred since survival of the courses including the opportunity for employment in T&H and event education -including academic careers -that were affected by global trends in HE should meet the needs of a range of stakeholders with the ability to be adaptable and open to changing demands, particularly for those responsible for the design, delivery, monitoring and review of the curriculums. Therefore, it is clear that one complex question facing T&H educators in thinking about curriculum models and their relationship with the industry is their contribution to produce and deliver a highly skilled knowledgeable T&H workforce to meet the industry's dynamic challenges. Hence, the critical reviews on the preceding literature encouraged further investigation to conduct a broad study and strategically appraise how T&H educators managed and delivered educational practices through curriculums.
But, through T&H curriculum literature investigation for almost three-decade time towards challenges and gaps, there was a lot of work to do for the educator to serve customers who were becoming more sophisticated and to meet the industry requirements since there were four obstacles which still needed to be discussed in order to face the future of T&H education through the curriculum model approach. Those were as follows (please see the detailed review in the appendices).

 Information and communication technology (ICT) needs.
 Human resources issues on graduate competency, job, and career aspirations.
 Curriculum content towards knowledge and skill formulation that aligned with the industry and business expectations (vocational versus academic approaches debates).
 A high-quality education that produces effective teaching & learning strategies and significant research impacts.
Truly, it informed the current investigation about the instability of the whole system in establishing the curriculum model approach; it was characterized by disorder and multiple possibilities of direction for future education. This phenomenon created a dynamic challenge, which consequently forced T&H institutions to have a curriculum model against a background of educational issues at the global, national, and local levels. It also required them to actively react and respond to the need for a trained and competent workforce [77], [78].

V. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ON TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY CURRICULUM STUDIES
As indicated, this study incorporates the broader thinking of various educational scholars for T&H educators to understand the emergence of curriculum studies towards curriculum model examination and investigation. A literature review reveals that the investigation studies concerned with T&H curriculum model had not been thoroughly investigated from the perspectives of curriculum inquiry at HE level.
The results of the T&H curriculum model investigation and analysis have predominately focused on the modernist approach and heavily employed the procedural model. This created and proved the stability conditions for curriculum reproduction. Indeed, some of the T&H post-modernist researchers have different opinion such as [67], [68] that proposed a liberal curriculum as a new way of thinking that integrated humanities and liberal arts to turn T&H intellectual thinkers from 'banausos' (heavily focused on technical, skill-building education) in to 'paideia' which pursues a whole educational development as human beings through more consideration of philosophy courses, arts, and historical knowledge of subjects and arguments. Thus, [22] and [66] advanced the Tribe [66], [79] 'philosophical practitioner' (PP) framework to suggest the 'philosophical practitioner education' (PPE) for T&H curriculum space to get a balance between T&H discipline study on vocational and professional skills learning outcomes and the critical engagement of both social sciences and humanities that generates mindful T&H graduates in society.
Additionally, as curriculums are at the heart of education, that suggested advocating innovation and creativity pertaining to teaching and learning processes at all levels of the education system. But, (1) the need of ICT, (2) a solution to overcome the human resources issues on graduate's competency, job, and career aspiration, (3) re-thinking about curriculum content towards knowledge and skill formulation to balance between the vocational and academic approaches, and (4) last but not least, the need of a high-quality education at HE level. All of them were producing the instability of T&H curriculum model planning.
Therefore, this wide-ranging context from both HE discussions and T&H curriculum published knowledge to highlight the debate in curriculum modelling process and acknowledged the T&H curriculum chaos that produces uncertainty for curriculum thinking that is characterized by disorder and multiple possibilities of direction for future development approaches. Thus, the future T&H curriculum studies need to distinguish and embrace a wider HE principle and practice that suggests distinctive educational philosophy research to balance the content and pedagogical strategy that could overcome the challenges and gaps of curriculum planning as well as produce highly knowledgeable graduates that recognize both economic and social responsibilities. In addition, further study might need to limit the gap on modelling the curriculum that appreciates the post-modernist perspectives, particularly within the critical-exploratory theorizer model that viewed curriculum through subjective, personal, aesthetic and transactional values to embrace the heuristic, spiritual, social, and accepts 'orderly disorder' tactics.