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Significance of National Spatial Planning for Economic Development of Secondary Cities in India: Critical Analysis of JNNURM Programme

: Secondary cities are the vital economic link along with megacities in the system of cities of a nation. Whereas spatial planning and local economic development are the major factors in fostering regional and national economic development. If the national spatial planning strategies failed to improve economic functions and linkages in the system of cities at a secondary cities level, the disparities among the regions will increase. This can result in a lagging regional economy. Therefore, the national government should develop innovative approaches to stimulate and manage the development of secondary cities. The main purpose of the paper was to critically review the spatial planning strategies carried out at the national level in the developing world. The selection of India as a case study country is based on population density and the presence of a vast network of secondary cities. The paper had critically reviewed the spatial planning strategies carried out in JNNURM National Programme to strengthen the local economic development of secondary cities during 1995-2015. The secondary data collection resources like research papers, reports, and books were used to gather the required data. The results revealed that the JNNURM had focused only on the development of cluster secondary cities around megacities in order to reduce congestion and accommodate the rural immigrants. Unfortunately, the JNNURM neglected the sub-national (regional headquarter) secondary cities, which are vital players for regional economic development. Therefore, it was suggested that the Indian government should also initiate spatial planning strategies and programs for the local economic development of sub-national secondary cities to achieve dual benefits: balanced regional and national economic development and a balanced system of cities.


Introduction
Cities are the major driving mechanism to enrich local economic development and boost trade and investment [1,2,3]. Cities help in shaping a regional, national, and global economy and culture. Similarly, they got affected if there is growth or decline in regional, national, and global economies [4].
As a result, a new hierarchy of cities has emerged.
The secondary city is a term frequently used to define the second-tier level of a hierarchical system of cities based on population verge. In the past, secondary cities caught little attention from researchers, planners, and policymakers in comparison to the megacities. Rondinelli was one of the pioneers in introducing and popularizing the term secondary cities in the 1970s [1,2,3 6]. But because of widening gap arising between the development of megacities and secondary cities, the governments and international agencies has been showing renewed interest in the development of secondary cities in recent years most notably by Cities Alliance [6,7,8,9].
These cities, on one hand, boost local production by industry agglomeration, create diversified economic and employment base for the city and regional inhabitants and offer localized supply chain and transportation services throughout a country. On the other hand, helps in reducing the flow of rural migrants to mega-cities in search of jobs by offering those opportunities at local level. Hence, many poor cities and rural areas might double or even triple their GDP with a successful system of secondary cities and reduce congestion from megacities [6]. "Secondary Cities are asset rich and cash poor", how to better use these assets is a key for development" [1]. Means efficient secondary cities leads towards a balanced system of cities which offer great provincial and national economic growth ability. The United States and South Africa are the two good examples.
Although the secondary cities share 40% allocation of global GDP, but they are the facilitators of the resources needed to mega cities such as it exists in Bangkok. However, due to negligence from local, central and international organizations, many secondary cities are facing development challenges like the revitalization of their economies, with a thirst for the investment needed for supportive economic infrastructure and the creation of attractive employment opportunities. This failure leads towards creating disparities and distortions in the regional economic development and poverty in many countries [6,10].
The secondary cities of southeast Asia have risen their importance over the last two decades as manufacturing hubs, regional development centers for agricultural goods and urban facilities. Consequently, administrative bases for district or sub-district governments, as well as destinations for migration from rural areas, smaller towns and neighboring countries increased in southeast Asian cities. As a large population, information, institutions and economic development concentration, secondary cities play an important role in the urban and economic structure of their own regions and in the South-East Asian zone [9].
India has a well-established democratically elected government and a wide network of secondary and lower-order towns [11]. In India, there are over 200 cities with populations of more than 200,000. There are two great cities, Mumbai and Delhi, and even more than 30 cities with more than 10% of the nation's largest city populations that can be identified as secondary cities [1]. These secondary cities serve as gateways and exchanges to facilitate business processes, supply chain networks, multimodal transit hubs and as focal points for the administration of sub-national / regional government and economic growth. In national and global growth, they are also major centres for innovation, research, community and business creation [1,4]. However, due to weak governance system, these secondary cities are coping with the problems of rapid urbanization and insufficient urban infrastructure & services, necessary to boost their economic development [12]. All that can be prohibited by developing and implementing the spatial planning strategies considering the local economic sectors of secondary cities. Giridharidas in 2007 quoted Ahluwalia, India's chief economic planner, that "One hundred million people will be moving to cities from rural areas in the next 10 years. It is important that these 100 million migrants should be absorbed in the second tier cities (secondary cities) instead of showing up in Delhi or Mumbai" [12]. Therefore, the national and provincial governments should give priority to the planning, governance and development of secondary cities. This will help in building a balanced national system of cities and sustainable local and regional development.
Especially the central government has an important role to play in local economic development phenomenon of secondary cities. National governments may stimulate collaboration between cities and help them boost the quality of their governance and the prosperity of industry. In comparison, decentralization also helps these cities to become more competitive, diverse, and selfsufficient cities [1,10].
Therefore, the paper seeks to examine the spatial planning strategies carried out at the national level in India to strengthen the local economic development of secondary cities. The purpose of selecting is that India has a developed structure of local government and a wide network of secondary and lower-order towns in comparison to other South Asian countries. The research had critically reviewed the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) initiates carried out in 2005 to boost the local economic development in secondary cities of India.
Before moving into the discussion and key issues addressed in the paper, it is useful to describe the system of secondary cities set by Cities Alliance and urbanization background of India.

System of Secondary Cities
A universally declared definition for secondary cities does not exist [9]. Most of the countries denote as part of a hierarchical grouping of cities, secondary cities resolute by population size, function, and economic status. Consequently, there is a significant variation in the definition among countries. Generally, a secondary city can likely have a population ranging between 10-50% percent of the nation's prime city [6,13]. "A secondary city as an urban area generally having a population of between 100,000 and 500,000". The size of these cities can be from a few hundred thousand to millions. Most of the other authors suggest that secondary cities should be defined in accordance with their performance in their national and regional integrated functional system, not by their hierarchy or population [9,14,15].

Typology of Secondary Cities
The Cities Alliance has divided secondary cities into three wide typologies or groups: (i) Sub-national cities being centers of local government, agriculture, tourism, industry and mining. (ii) Cluster cities in the form of satellite and emerging development cities that overlap major metropolitan areas, and (iii) Economic trading corridors designed or built by urban development centres or positions along major transport corridors. The sub-national secondary cities are the oldest form of secondary cities, mostly developed as regional administrative centres. In other cases, they were developed as industrial or logistic centres due to their unique location for competitive advantage. Others were developed due to historical or cultural advantage like Kumasi in Ghana, Varanasi, India and Mecca in Saudi Arabia.
Historically, most of the sub-national secondary cities were founded as regional administration hubs in the sense of a centrally devolved government structure. Some cities also became major industrial, resource and logistic centres, because of competitive and unique locational advantage. The remaining cities were developed because of cultural and historical advantages. The examples are Kumasi in Ghana, Varanasi, India and Mecca in Saudi Arabia [1,10].
With the development of countries, their small regional settlements and towns also expand into secondary cities and megacities. Though mega cities lead in trade and investment, but secondary cities play a vital role in a sub-national regional development by providing knowledge, industries, market, logistics, transport and cultural hubs, which create attractive employment opportunities and enhance the consumption, trade, import and export services [2,3,4]. However, very limited work has been done at national level to develop sub-national secondary cities and achieve regional economic development in South Asia context [1,9].

Population Based Classification of Secondary Cities
From the population point of view world cities are classified into six categories: supra, mega, metro, meso, micro and mini types [1]. Table 1 describes the population range for primary, secondary and tertiary cities which comes under this classification of cities presented by Cities Alliance. cities along with the types of functions they perform. The primary cities can fall in the supra, mega to even mini category of cities. Whereas, the size of secondary cities varies from 150,000 to 5 million population and has a wide variety of roles in international and domestic urban systems. Therefore, the secondary cities fall in the meso, micro and mini categories (see table  1). Business, utilities and production at district level Subdistrict Service sector centres focused on rural capital According to United Nation (2012) [17], in 2010 53% of the world population was living in urban areas. It is expected that 70 percent of the world 's population will live in urban areas by 2025. It is also estimated that in 2025 out of that 70%, 40% will be living in secondary cities. Globally, more than 2,400 cities around the world with populations ranging from 150,000 to 5 million may be classified as secondary cities. In Africa and Asia, about two-thirds of them are [1]. These cities are projected to rise to 460 million people, compared to 270 million between 2010 and 2025 for large cities worldwide [1,6]. It is clear from the figure 1  continents. The highest urban growth is occurring in 500,000 population ranges. Whereas the growth is second highest in 1-5 million ranges and both types fall in the secondary city's population range.

Economic Functional Based Classification of Secondary Cities
The secondary city is more determined by its location and its place in the urban network and the global financial system [9,18]. Geographically, secondary cities may facilitate growth at the state level, which increases the distribution of income and resources, prevents migration to primary cities, and thus relieves urban pollution and infrastructure constraints by creating alternative sites for economic, manufacturing and other productive activities. Promoting regional economic growth by the agglomeration and nurture of small and medium-scale enterprises serving local markets [9]. The table 2 presents the functional typology of secondary cities [9,18].

Demographic Trends in India
India is a country, comprise of 29 states and 7 Union Territories. There are 640 total numbers of districts (counties) in India. The country had a population of 1.21 billion (census 2011) with a share of 17.5% of the world's population. India 's average rate of urban population growth is 3.35 per cent [19]. The percentage of urban dwellers rose from 17.35% in 1951 towards 31.2% in 2011. Fast population growth rates, decreasing rural prospects, and the change from a static and low-paying farm sector to higher compensated urban occupations lead to urban growth in major part. It is important to keep in mind that presently 1 in 3 people live in urban areas and it is estimated that as many as 50 per cent of India's population will remain in cities in the next 10 years [19,20]. It is interesting to note that from 1901 to 2011, India remains a rural population dominating country (see table 3).  Regional market The city is a major driver for commodities development and trade services at the level of the provincial and simultaneous central economy.

2.
Service center The city provides both the local society and the local populace with a variety of public health facilities, secondary and tertiary education institutions, as well as private sector, industries, recreation, and knowledge centers. 3.
Regional capital The city hosts separate regional and national legislative and administrative structures.

4.
Economic location As a large-scale production and trading area, the city establishes a cohesive national and international policy, by making the requisite improvements in infrastructure and by promoting the actions of economic actors.

5.
Tourist centre To encourage activities directly linked to national and foreign tourism, the city uses its competitive advantages of location, natural wealth, historical heritage, history, etc. 6.
Communication hub The city serves as a forum for the trade of people , goods and knowledge due to its strategic position and the growth of the related infrastructure. 7.
Metropolitan periphery The growth and prosperity of the region is highly based on its incorporation into the metropolitan region, with national and international complexities underlying it. 8.

National/ International
The geographical position of the city (border region, coast, city-state) and its growth interface policy (dutyfree zone, "maquiladoras", foreign tourism) give it a role influenced primarily by growing international trade networks. 9.
Cities in a conurban area The growth of the city depends on the incorporation of many major municipalities into an agglomeration connected together at different levels of the metropolitan system, with each municipal maintaining its own identification.

Association of a group
In a largely rural area, many small towns form a community and cities affect each other. 11.
Urban region Settled regions within scattered metropolitan areas However, 68.8% population of the country is still residing in rural areas [19,20]. It is clear from these available census statistics of India that the rural areas are still settling major part of country's population. Therefore, the national urban spatial planning strategies of the country should be favourable and supportive for rural areas too, as they are directly or indirectly dependent on urban service centres.

Methods for Data Collection
It is the duty of planners to collect and review accessible data and to correctly present the potential impacts of the multiple intervention plans to all stakeholders [21]. Considering these points, the study had adopted the Cities Alliance classification of cities. The required data were collected from research papers, books, and reports through online resources available in MUET. That had helped a lot in the study to establish a link between spatial planning strategies and local economic development in secondary cities. The gathered data was analysed by using population projection models and graphs were produced in MS Excel.

Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM)
In 2005, one of the most ambitious projects to enhance urban infrastructure and promote local economic growth in secondary cities was launched by the Indian government [11,22]. The National Urban Regeneration Task of Jawaharlal Nehru targeted 63 urban agglomerations in India to strengthen basic infrastructure facilities and urban revitalization programmes [22]. Those 63 urban agglomerations were divided into three categories on the basis of the 2001 population census: Ujjain, Puri, Ajmer-Pushkar, Nainital, Mysore, Pondicherry, Chandigarh, Srinagar, Mathura, Haridwar, Nanded.
The concerned authorities were given the responsibility to prepare the city development plans [11]. Larger cities such as Mumbai, Delhi and Chennai have drawn up proposals to establish secondary cities on the outskirts of these areas. Many of those cities were expanded towns, developed to reduce overcrowding and congestion from large urban agglomerations. The concerned development authorities, as a part of a master plan had brought sizeable areas of land and developed them into new towns. For instance, Gurgaon in South-East Delhi is one of India 's fastest growing and most lucrative business investment and growth location. In 2006, Indian secondary cities, urban revitalization programmes have been used to rejuvenate and promote restructuring and investment in infrastructure and real estate programmes in secondary cities. Plans were also planned by the local planning authorities for the creation of public utilities, highways, industrial developments, and community amenities.

Urbanization Trends of India
South Asia shares 30% urban population of Asia continent. India is the second densely populated country in Asia after China and top populated country of Southern Asia. India shares around 20% and more than 67% urban population of Asia and South Asia respectively. Table 4 presents the urban population trends in Asia, South Asia, and India in the five population-based categories of cities set by Cities Alliance from 1995 to 2015. Considering these categories, the study has analysed India's urban settlements growth trends during 1995-2015. The data was taken from Indian census reports (on-line sources) and Un-habitat reports. If one observes the urbanization trends in India in 1995, the 10 million plus and 5-10 million categories had a combined share of 18 percent. Whereas, the 500,000-1 and 1-5 million categories had a combined share of 26 percent. The remaining 56% of urban areas were living in the small cities and towns. The 10 million and more cities category had shown an increase of 6% during 10 years (2005)  The last category of cities is of less than 500,000 population. This category had a share of 56% in 1995%, which have gradually reduced to 54% in 2005 and 49% in 2015. The secondary cities of India fall in the categories of 500,000-1 million and 1-5 million population [12]. That means, these secondary cities are struggling for their sustenance. They are unable to cater the economic needs of their local and surrounding rural areas. Therefore, the inhabitants migrate to metropolitan cities for better employment opportunities.  Although, the country has a 31.2% share of urban population, but 68.8% population of the country is still living in rural areas [19]. Below 500,000 and 500,000-1 million cities, which comprise more than 50% urban population of India, also include the regional headquarter cities of these districts. These regional headquarter cities are also the secondary cities. These cities serve as regional market and service centres to cater the goods exchange, health, education, leisure and activities of local and surrounding communities and for the strengthening of a local and regional economy. "The cities, ranging in size from between 150,000 and five million, represent one of the biggest opportunities for urbanizing economies globally" [1,6].

Rural Urban Migration in India
India has a population of 419,938 million people (2015 estimates). About 29% of the country's total population live in urban areas [19]. The country is comprised of 7935 cities, out of which 3 cities with 10 million plus population, 4 city with 5-10 million population, 43 cities with 1-5 million population, 49 cities with 500,000-1 million population and remaining cities have less than 500,000 population [1]. The Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata are the three cities of India with 10 million plus population. Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad and Pune cities have a population between 5-10 million. The Ahmadabad, Chennai, Hyderabad and Kolkata are cities 1-5 million population [19].
India's urbanisation rate is greater (1.1%) than the global average (0.9%) [23]. This shows that, like other countries in Asia, India is highly urbanized. The urban population of India had grown from 329 million in 2005 to 419 million in 2015 with 31% of total population living in urban areas. However, 69% of Indian population was still living in rural areas in 2015. That means India is a country having largest rural population of 936 million by 2015 [24]. The rural population migrates to 10 million plus cities and 5-10 million cities in search of jobs. Out of total population of Mumbai and Delhi, about 45% of the population are comprised of migrants who migrated there to seek employment [24]. This rural-urban displacement has placed the urban structures under tremendous pressure. This has created significant challenges in spatial planning, administration and development in these cities. Therefore, out of 419 million inhabitants of urban India, 48.57% (203.5 million) are living in slums people living in Indian cities [24].

Conclusion:
Based on the above research findings, it is concluded that although JNNURM was strong example of secondary urban revitalization programme that have effectively promoted the growth of local economies and created new job opportunities. However, the limitation of the programme was that the 0.05 million population category of cities, which comprised of 54% urban population of India in 2005 (see figure 3), remained unattended.
The other drawback was that JNNURM was more focused to develop cluster secondary cities on the periphery of selected urban agglomerations. That was ultimately a remedy to solve the problems of megacities instead of strengthening the local economic development of secondary cities.
It is, however, a good attempt to accommodate the rural migrants and urban poor in those cluster secondary cities. But this trend of absorbing the excessive urban population in those cluster cities is not a feasible spatial planning strategy. In contrast, these types of national programmes can motivate the rural-urban migration. As a resultant, the overcrowding can become an unending issue in megacities. Ultimately, the national, state and local governments are bound to invest the major part of their budget on the provision of housing and infrastructure services, instead of focusing on the economic development of cities.
Some 75 per cent of the world's population lives in urban settlements of fewer than 500,000 people. "A balanced system of cities with strong secondary cities offers tremendous potential for regional and national economic development. Many poor cities and rural regions could double or even triple their GDP," [1].
Secondary cities are a vital link in the chain of system of cities, which is becoming more global and efficient. There is a need to improve the functions and linkages in the system of cities at the secondary level that must became a focus for national governments [1,2,3].
The spatial planning strategies have a key role to play in raising both national and regional prosperity and reducing prosperity gaps between cities within regions [4,7,10] Therefore, if India want secondary cities to became more efficient like metropolitan cities, it is essential that its national government along with regional and local government should focus on spatial planning policies and programmes to support a balanced development of their system of cities.