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On the Presence of the Negro in the Nile Valley

Hines's assertion that "the early states of the Middle East, the Mediterranean, Mesoamerica, and South America all possessed writing systems, in the form of either hieroglyphics or an alphabet" misrepresents New World prehistory. Between about A.D. 600 and the Spanish conquest in the 16th century, there arose in the Andean highlands a series of sociocultural entities that must be considered states by anybody's definition: the last of these, the Inca empire, was a tightly organized dominion that stretched from northern Ecuador to northern Chile. Yet neither the Incas nor their predecessors ever possessed any system of writing in either hieroglyphics or an alphabet.