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Anthropological Perspectives on War

This paper evaluates the claims for evolutionary commonality by comparing social structure, spatial organisation and patterns of inter-group conflict in humans and non-human primates. Human hunter-gatherers live at low population densities in comparison with other species, range more widely, have permeable social group boundaries and are characterised by strict territoriality. Resources are sparse and unpredictable, and reciprocity-based sharing seems to be more adaptive than complete exclusion. This differs from the socio-spatial organisation of chimpanzee populations where extreme inter-group violence has been observed. Where chimpanzees live in similar habitats, they also have low population density and wide-ranging patterns, but the patterns of inter-group interaction are currently unknown. Conversely, humans exploiting more predictable resources, and living at higher population densities, show patterns of territoriality and inter-group conflict more consistent with those observed in other species, and here there may be broad functional similarities. These ecologically based intra-specific variations suggest that the expression of inter-group conflict is highly contingent and flexible. It is suggested that understanding of evolutionary commonalities demands consideration of ecological contexts, and a dissociation of war and territoriality. While human and chimpanzee 'raiding' may have similar causes, human 'warfare' finds no direct parallel in the inter-group conflicts of other species: it is iterated interaction, involving shifting supra-group alliances at a variety of levels (bands, tribes, nations) and occurs within socioeconomic power struggles. The closest