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Landmarks on Mobile Maps: Roles of Visual Variables in the Acquisition of Spatial Knowledge

  
 This study presents the evaluation of a new design of mobile maps to overcome the limit of the small screen by visualizing landmarks which are normally invisible as located beyond the displayed map extent. The visualization of distant landmarks adapts a specific cartographic visual variable: size, fuzziness, or transparency, respectively, to conceptualize distances in three ranges: nearby, intermediate, and far. To evaluate the effectiveness of each design on acquisition of spatial knowledge, this study carries out an online experiment and then a field experiment in the actual environment. In the online experiment, participants see the static default screen of the mobile maps with landmarks. In the field experiment, participants can interact with the mobile map App which allows them to tap, pan, or zoom the map. Results show that both online and field experiments yield similar findings, although the results from field experiment with allowed interaction are better. In general, the visualization of distant landmarks contributes to the spatial learning. Individual visual variables such as fuzziness and transparency, however, facilitate the acquisition of spatial knowledge better than size. 