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Aging well? Social spending, age, and subjective wellbeing across Europe

The association between age and subjective wellbeing has been examined across
 different samples and obser?vational time frames, most often indicating a
 decline in subjective wellbeing with age or a U-shaped relation. Although
 various contextual variables have been examined as moderators of this
 relation, the moderating effect of social spending has not been investigated
 so far. Given that social spending is potentially beneficial for wellbeing
 and that social spending in Europe is primarily elderly-oriented, we assumed
 that in countries with higher social spending expenditures, there is a more
 positive effect of age on subjective wellbeing. We used cross-sectional
 hierarchical linear modelling (HLM) analysis and the data from the ninth
 round of the European Social Survey, including 29 countries. Our results
 show that age is generally negatively related, while age squared is
 positively related to subjec?tive wellbeing, indicating a U-shaped relation
 between age and wellbeing. Additionally, social spending at the aggregate
 level is a significant determinant of wellbeing at the individual level.
 Most importantly, social spending is a significant positive moderator of
 this association: with increasing social spending levels, aging is more
 positively related to wellbeing.