{'fraction_non_alphanumeric': 0.0282513395031661, 'fraction_numerical': 0.010228933268387726, 'mean_word_length': 5.647249190938512, 'pattern_counts': {'":': 0, '<': 0, '<?xml version=': 0, '>': 0, 'https://': 0, 'lorem ipsum': 0, 'www.': 0, 'xml': 0}, 'pii_count': 0, 'substrings_counts': 0, 'word_list_counts': {'cursed_substrings.json': 0, 'profanity_word_list.json': 0, 'sexual_word_list.json': 0, 'zh_pornsignals.json': 0}}
Peroxisomal β-oxidation regulates histone acetylation and DNA methylation in Arabidopsis

Significance Small-molecule metabolites from cell organelles or cytosol exert their influence on decision making processes in eukaryotic cells. However, the mechanisms underlying the regulation of cellular processes by these metabolites are not well understood. Among these small metabolites, acetyl-CoA, a most critical one, is produced in the cytosol and different cell organelles. In plants, acetyl-CoA produced from fatty acid β-oxidation in peroxisomes plays critical roles in various developmental stages. Here we found that defects in β-oxidation in peroxisomes affect both histone acetylation and DNA methylation in the nucleus. Our work provides evidence for retrograde signaling from peroxisomes to regulate nuclear epigenetic modifications in higher eukaryotes. Epigenetic markers, such as histone acetylation and DNA methylation, determine chromatin organization. In eukaryotic cells, metabolites from organelles or the cytosol affect epigenetic modifications. However, the relationships between metabolites and epigenetic modifications are not well understood in plants. We found that peroxisomal acyl-CoA oxidase 4 (ACX4), an enzyme in the fatty acid β-oxidation pathway, is required for suppressing the silencing of some endogenous loci, as well as Pro35S:NPTII in the ProRD29A:LUC/C24 transgenic line. The acx4 mutation reduces nuclear histone acetylation and increases DNA methylation at the NOS terminator of Pro35S:NPTII and at some endogenous genomic loci, which are also targeted by the demethylation enzyme REPRESSOR OF SILENCING 1 (ROS1). Furthermore, mutations in multifunctional protein 2 (MFP2) and 3-ketoacyl-CoA thiolase-2 (KAT2/PED1/PKT3), two enzymes in the last two steps of the β-oxidation pathway, lead to similar patterns of DNA hypermethylation as in acx4. Thus, metabolites from fatty acid β-oxidation in peroxisomes are closely linked to nuclear epigenetic modifications, which may affect diverse cellular processes in plants.