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Herzberg Revisited: Dimensionality and Structural Invariance of Herzberg's Two Factor Model

Studies on two-factor theoryHerzberg (1959, 1987) in his two-factor theory of job satisfaction postulated motivators and hygiene factors in explaining job satisfaction at work place. Motivators include recognition, achievement, growth opportunities, advancement, responsibility, and the work itself. Hygiene factors include salary, interpersonal relations at work, supervision, company policies and administration, working conditions, and job security. According to this theory the presence of motivators results in job satisfaction and the presence of hygiene factors does not result in increase of job satisfaction, but only reduces or eliminates job dissatisfaction of the employees. This conceptualization of Herzberg challenged the hitherto existing views that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction as opposite poles of a single continuum. The two-factor theory posits Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction as two orthogonal dimensions and factors influencing job satisfaction are different from those influencing job dissatisfaction. Hence to motivate employees, organizations have to deal with one sets of factors for increasing job satisfaction and entirely different set of factors for reducing job dissatisfaction. This theory has been very popular among scholars and practitioners because of its simplicity and its common-sense approach. The basic tenets of the two-factor theory provide insight into the areas managers can influence in order to increase the satisfaction of their employees, albeit the empirical support for this conceptualization is scantly, week and often contradictory.Plethora of studies conducted during 60s and 70s to test the empirical validity has shown contradictory results and did not convincingly support the two-factor model (Wernimont, 1966; Hulin, 1971 and Korman, 1971). The theory is found to be impractical because distinguishing between hygiene and motivator factors is not so simple and straightforward as they are highly related thus suggesting a single continuum as opposed to a dual continuum (Ewen, 1964; Wolf, 1967; McGreal, 1968; and Locke, 1976). In a study on retail sales personnel, among factors influencing Job satisfaction only recognition was found to be a motivator as defined by Herzberg's two-factor theory. The other factors include, company policy, and money (Winer & Schiff, 1980; Lucas, 1985).Many criticisms were directed towards the critical incidence methodology adopted by Herzberg (Brayfield, 1960 and Soliman, 1970). The critical incidence methodology is oversimplified and does not represent general population (Smerek & Peterson, 2006). Subjects' responses to critical incidence method were retrospective and inconsistent (Sachau, 2007). Five different versions of the two-factor theory have been identified and none was found to stand the tests of validity by two or more different methods of testing (King, 1970). The theory generates multiplicity of hypotheses and have to be tested using multiple ways (Gardner, 1977). Herzberg's views on causality of satisfiers and dissatisfiers were questioned by Farr (1977) using new methods suggested in the field of occupational psychology.Many studies have shown two-factor model as context dependent. Applying this model in an Engineering Construction Company in South India, Joseph (1974) found that factors which cause satisfaction for one employee in one culture need not necessarily be the same in other cultures. Cross-cultural differences were found in the factors influencing job satisfaction. Hygiene factors were seen to influence Job satisfaction among Thai (Sithiphand, 1983) and Yemen (Al-Mekhlafil, 1991) employees. In a study comparing public and private sector employees using a questionnaire method, Maidani (1991) found that in addition to motivator factors hygiene factors were also found to influence job satisfaction questioning the dual continuum concept. Among technical personnel at a U.S Department of Energy Tamosaitis and Schwenker (2002) found that hygiene factors are major factor influencing employee retention which is inconsistent with Herzberg's theory. …