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Writing Development: Introduction to the Special Issue

Writing has a long and storied history. More than 5,000 years ago, the Sumerians devised a system of writing, called cuneiform, that allowed them to list and record goods by using a wedge-shape reed stylus to make impressions on a moist clay tablet. From this initial record-keeping debut, writing has evolved to become one of humankind’s most powerful tools (Swerdlow, 1999). Among its many functions, it has provided a flexible medium for artistic, political, spiritual, and self-expression. For example, ideas expressed in writing have been used as a means for both formulating revolution (see Thomas Paine’s pamphlet, Common Sense ) and maintaining national cohesion (see Chairman Mao’s Little Red Book ). Just as important, writing provides an external memory, making it easier for us to remember, analyze, and share our ideas and thoughts. Writing can even have therapeutic effects, as writing about one’s feelings can reduce depression, lower blood pressure, and boost the immune system (Swerdlow, 1999). Although the scientific study of writing has a much shorter history, totaling no more than 100 years, there has been considerable discussion and research during the last 2 decades about the factors that contribute to writing proficiency and its development (Hayes, 1996). It is generally agreed that competence, and ultimately expertise, in writing is dependent on a broad array of cognitive, motivational, social, and contextual factors. In this special issue of the Educational Psychologist , the influence of each of these areas is examined. First, Graham and Harris evaluate the proposition that the development of writing competence depends on high levels of self-regulation (see, e.g., models by Hayes & Flowers, 1980; Zimmerman & Riesemberg, 1997) as well as the mastery of low-level transcription skills (see, e.g., arguments by Berninger, Fuller, & Whitaker, 1996), concluding that the available evidence generally supports this thesis. Second, McCutchen presents a developmental model, based on current empirical findings, that describes how multiple sources of knowledge, stored in long-term memory, are coordinated during writing within the constraints of working memory. The focus of the third article shifts from cognitive to motivational factors, as Bruning and Horn consider the conditions that contribute to the development of writing motivation. Fourth, Fitzgerald and Shanahan construct a preliminary developmental model of writing and reading relations, which details the cognitive features or markers that are critical to obtaining proficiency in both of these areas. Finally, Schultz and Fecho examine how social and contextual variables influence writing and its development. Because of space limitations, not all aspects of writing development could be addressed in this special issue. Even if more space were available, it is important to realize that current descriptions, models, and theories of writing development are incomplete. As Hayes (1996) noted, “Some parts have begun to take definite shape ... Other parts are being actively designed and still others have barely been sketched” (p. 1). Taken together, the articles in this special issue provide substance and structure to some of the more important aspects of writing development. It is our hope that they will serve as a springboard for additional discussion, study, and analysis.