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Organisational behaviour and public decision making in the EA context

conceptualisation Testing expanded this list to 14, specifying several that implied some form of control over communication flow. These included control of knowledge and information, control of boundaries, control of technology, control of boundaries, control of the informal organisation, and interpersonal alliances. Bases of power (means to exert influence) identified by Stephen Robbins (1984) include control of budgets and rewards, persuasion, rules and procedures, physical presence or threat, and charisma (see Brooks, 2003, for further discussion of the power sources and bases). In EA, where power lies is important, as it determines to a large extent what can be accomplished. Project implementation that takes EA findings into account depends on strong legal instruments and ultimately the decisions made by those with legitimate power. Even a well conducted EA and participation process are “not a substitute for the regulatory power, political will, and money required to get things done” (Beierle and Cayford 2002, p62). Different players in the EA context may include different government departments, such as the environment department and sectoral departments or agencies. Different departments, power sources often relate to: dependency (the extent to which one department depends on another department), centrality (importance of the department’s work to the organisation or government), financial resources, ‘sustainability’ (work could be performed by others), and the department’s ability to reduce uncertainty for others. This is interesting to bear in mind and helps explain why most economic and treasury departments are so powerful relative to others. In EA can therefore be sometimes be important to have the economic or treasury departments involved from the early stages. Part of EA’s role though, is to give voice to and help empower the less powerful departments (especially environment departments), stakeholders, and interests. Politics and conflict resolution Politics and conflict resolution are also important in EA contexts. Richard Daft (1992, p403) considers politics to be “a process of bargaining and negotiation that is used to overcome conflicts and differences of opinion”. He identifies four areas where politics and thus potentially conflict seem endemic: 1. structural change; 2. inter-departmental coordination; 3. management succession; and 4. resource allocation. Conflict occurs when at least one party feels its interests have been frustrated. Conflict often arises due to: • difference in status; • scarcity of resources (e.g. budget); • dependency on others; • winners and losers; and • cultural differences. Conflict can be handled by avoidance, accommodation, compromise, competition, or collaboration (which is often seen as the optimum solution). The factors likely to influence the conflict-handling style are (Brooks, 2003, chapter 8): • the time available to resolve the conflict; • the level of importance of the issue stimulating the conflict; • whether one of the styles is more suitable to the circumstances; and • issues of commitment, motivation, precedence. Interestingly, since the early 1980s, EA has been usually been perceived as “a learning and negotiation process between multiple actors” (in Fischer 2003, p156). Recent studies call “resolving conflict among competing interests” (Beierle and Cayford 2002, p15) one of the five most important social goals of the EA public participation processes. As can be imagined, politics and conflict are almost intrinsic to the EA process, which is not only scientific and technical, but firmly embedded in a political and social context. EA involves to some degree nearly every aspect of the above-mentioned political and conflict-prone situations. Particularly for controversial projects, conflict can be a significant issue for EA. Effective communication strategies are increasingly seen as an important tool for managing and facilitating EA’s ‘multiple negotiation process’ between stakeholders and decision makers (Gustavo and Partidario, 2006). Further study of conflict resolution techniques is highly desirable for EA practitioners. 10.2.2 Value of work in OB constituent disciplines It is important to bear in mind that OB’s constituent disciplines, including sociology, have developed many useful models and ideas that can contribute to more effective EA. In Environmental Sociology, for example, Hannigan (2006) outlines the five necessary factors for successful construction of an environmental problem. These include scientific authority, popularisers, media attention, dramatization in symbolic and visual terms, economic incentives for positive action, and a legitimate institutional sponsor (Box 10.1).