{'fraction_non_alphanumeric': 0.030389908256880736, 'fraction_numerical': 0.016628440366972478, 'mean_word_length': 5.080139372822299, 'pattern_counts': {'":': 0, '<': 1, '<?xml version=': 0, '>': 1, 'https://': 0, 'lorem ipsum': 0, 'www.': 0, 'xml': 0}, 'pii_count': 0, 'substrings_counts': 0, 'word_list_counts': {'cursed_substrings.json': 0, 'profanity_word_list.json': 0, 'sexual_word_list.json': 0, 'zh_pornsignals.json': 0}}
Adiposity and Glucose Intolerance in Offspring of Diabetic Mothers in India

Objective Maternal diabetes in pregnancy increases the risk of obesity and diabetes in the offspring. Our aim was to compare the offspring born to diabetic mothers (ODM) with those born in non-diabetic mothers (ONDM). Research design and methods We compared the physical characteristics, body composition (DXA) and glycemia of ODMs and matched ONDMs. Glycemic measures included capillary blood glucose measurement in children <10 years of age and a 1.75g/kg glucose OGTT in those >10 years. We evaluated insulin sensitivity (HOMA-S and Matsuda index), beta cell function (HOMA-{beta} and insulinogenic index) and {beta}-cell compensatory response (Disposition Index: Matsuda* Insulinogenic index). We studied the association of maternal and paternal body size and glycemia with outcomes in the child. Results We studied 200 ODMs (176 diabetic mothers - 133 GDM, 21 type 2 diabetes and 22 type 1 diabetes), 177 ONDMs, and their parents at an average period of 9.7 years after delivery. ODMs were heavier and more glucose intolerant than ONDMs. Children born to overweight or obese mothers with GDM or type 2 diabetes were more likely to be overweight or glucose intolerant, whereas those born to thin type 1 diabetic mothers were glucose intolerant but not obese. In addition, obesity or glucose intolerance in the father had an independent influence on the child's phenotype. Conclusion: Our results show that offspring obesity and glucose intolerance are programmed independently by both parents. In addition there is an independent mirror-imaging of size and glycemia between parents and children. Further studies of genetic and epigenetic mechanisms are indicated.