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Cognitive Shadowing for Learning Opponents in a Strategy Game Experiment: Using Machine Learning to Counter Players’ Strategies

While non-player opponents in commercial video games often rely on simple artificial intelligence techniques, machine learning techniques that capture human strategies could make them more engaging. Cognitive Shadow is a prototype tool that combines several artificial intelligence techniques to continuously model human decision-making patterns during tasks that require categorical decision-making. The present study aims to assess the potential of Cognitive Shadow to create learning opponents that will counter the player's decisions in a strategy game, making it more challenging and engaging. The game developed to this end is a more complex version of rock-paper-scissors, set within the context of a wizards’ duel. Each participant (Player 1) took part in three game sessions of 12 battles (each including five rounds), only being told that they would face a non-player opponent. During Session 1, Cognitive Shadow was in learning mode, thus the non-player opponent (Player 2) chose its plays at random. During Session 2, Cognitive Shadow was active and helped counter participants’ decisions without their knowledge. Before Session 3, participants were informed that their opponent was using machine learning to anticipate and counter their strategy. The results showed that Player 2 was more effective with the help of Cognitive Shadow, having won significantly more battles in Sessions 2 and 3 than in Session 1. In addition, the level of engagement reported by human players increased significantly in Session 3. These results indicate that cognitive shadowing can be used in a strategy game to increase engagement when players are aware of the learning behavior.