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Problem Formulation: Its Portrayal in the Texts

Problem formulation often is referred to as the most critical phase in the planning, problem solving and decision making processes (Einstein & Infeld, 1983; Tversky & Kahneman, 1974; Ackoff, 1978). Because problem formulation occurs in the early stages of these processes, it can affect the direction of all succeeding stages (Nutt, 1984). Thus, solving the &dquo;wrong&dquo; problem (i.e., formulating the problem with incorrect presumptions concerning needs and opportunities) can result in significant monetary losses as well as problem solving ineffectiveness. Over the past fifteen years the topic of problem formulation has received increasing attention from researchers and practitioners. During this period, the link between problem formulation and solution generation has been clarified (Kohler, 1969; Posner, 1973; Simon & Hayes, 1976), and guidelines for stating problems have been proposed (Elbing, 1970). Both the analytical and the political dimensions of the formulation phase have been examined (Narayanan & Fahey, 1982). Prescriptive and descriptive models have been offered (Lyles & Mitroff, 1980; Schwenk & Thomas, 1983), and at least one review of the literature on this topic has been published (Lyles, 1981). As a result of the importance of and increasing interest in this topic, one would expect to find more and more textbooks including and expanding sections on problem formulation. Because textbooks are the only formal exposure many students will have to problem formulation, it is important that coverage be as comprehensive and up-to-date as possible (Patzig & Zimmer-