{'fraction_non_alphanumeric': 0.014105419450631032, 'fraction_numerical': 0.0007423904974016332, 'mean_word_length': 6.057591623036649, 'pattern_counts': {'":': 0, '<': 0, '<?xml version=': 0, '>': 0, 'https://': 0, 'lorem ipsum': 0, 'www.': 0, 'xml': 0}, 'pii_count': 0, 'substrings_counts': 0, 'word_list_counts': {'cursed_substrings.json': 0, 'profanity_word_list.json': 0, 'sexual_word_list.json': 0, 'zh_pornsignals.json': 0}}
Diversity of bacterial manipulation of the host ubiquitin pathways

Ubiquitination is generally considered as a eukaryotic protein modification, which is catalysed by a three‐enzyme cascade and is reversed by deubiquitinating enzymes. Ubiquitination directs protein degradation and regulates cell signalling, thereby plays key roles in many cellular processes including immune response, vesicle trafficking and cell cycle. Bacterial pathogens inject a series of virulent proteins, named effectors, into the host cells. Increasing evidence suggests that many effectors hijack the host ubiquitin pathways to benefit bacterial infection. This review summarizes the known functions and mechanisms of effectors from human bacterial pathogens including enteropathogenic Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Shigella, Chlamydia and Legionella, highlighting the diversity in their mechanisms for manipulating the host ubiquitin pathways. Many effectors adopt the molecular mimicry strategy to harbour similar structures or functional motifs with those of the host E3 ligases and deubiquitinases. On the other hand, a few of effectors evolve novel structures or new enzymatic activities to modulate various steps of the host ubiquitin pathways. The diversity in the mechanisms enhances the efficient exploitation of the host ubiquitination signalling by bacteria.