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Nathalie Clayer and Xavier Bougarel. Europe’s Balkan Muslims: A New History

Ever since people have tried to define ‘Europe’, there has been a fairly fixed geographical identity, but historically it has been seen as essentially Christian. The presence of millions of Muslims has defied this definition. The confrontation between Christian Europe and Ottoman Turkey became sharpened towards the end of the 19 century. Muslims were presented as the agents of a tyrannical and illegitimate Ottoman presence in Europe. The Muslims were seen as migrants from Asia, Tatar or Turkish interlopers, or descendants of converts from Bogomilism, the medieval heresy related to the Cathars of southern France. The fact that the Slavs and the Bulgarians were also migrants from further east and also converts to Christianity was not seen as similarly illegitimate.