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Interdisciplinarity

Interdisciplinarity employs multiple academic fields of knowledge in order to create a comprehensive understanding of a globally relevant phenomenon, a region, or its people, and to find solutions to concrete problems. Interdisciplinarity evolved in the 20th century in response to the institutionalization and segmentation of academic research and major transitions in society. Many geography departments have interdisciplinary profiles, but the daily practice of interdisciplinarity depends on the networks of individual academics. The results of interdisciplinary collaboration include research books, textbooks, and journal articles, the market of which continues to diversify. Authors of interdisciplinary textbooks and teachers of interdisciplinary classes must pay special attention to teaching philosophy and communication skills in order to satisfy the needs of a heterogeneous body of students interested in interdisciplinary learning. Interdisciplinarity means different things in different contexts, and practices and challenges vary. Some see interdisciplinarity as an exciting opportunity, while others feel threatened by the downsides of crossing disciplinary boundaries.

traditionally approached the complex concept of culture were questioned. Critical researchers moved the focus from the study of forms and structures to the interpretation of meaning in the examination of landscapes, from high culture to popular culture, from quantification toward qualitative methods, and from societal and general to quotidian and individual foci. Perspectives employed in anthropology and sociology were particularly useful in this remaking of culturally oriented human geography. The debate resulted in a considerable diversification of human-and cultural-geographical investigations and new collaborative networks. The changes supported the visibility and credibility of human geography in the humanities and social sciences, stressing the importance of space and place in human phenomena. By the 21st Century, these developments diminished the relative isolation of human geography, caused by geography's long roots in the positivist tradition of science.
Animal geography exemplifies a subdiscipline that has helped concretize what human geographers can give to the examination of an inherently interdisciplinary theme. Geographers interested in the relations between species have contributed to the diverse networks of human-animal studies with their holistic understanding of space, place, landscape, interdependence of scales, and the environment. Animals, in turn, have fostered collaboration between human and physical geographers and data-and map-savvy GIS experts in the study of urban wilderness or conservation issues. Animals have also motivated inquiry into posthumanism, challenging the human-centricity of human geographers and expanding their view on subjectivity in subdisciplines such as political geography and geopolitics. Within geography, animal geography became institutionalized in the late 2000s and early 2010s with the establishment of an Animal Geography Specialty Group within the American Association of Geographers, research seminar and online networks, integration of animal topics in the curricula, and a growing volume of research publications and textbooks.
Human-geographical studies of consumption illustrate the results of evolving thinking about culture, human-animal relations, and expanding interdisciplinarity. Early studies about consumption relied heavily on economy in their modeling and evaluation of networks from the perspective of efficient flows, accessibility, and most suitable locations. Along with the challenge to predominant views in architecture and with human-geographical interest in behavioral studies came questions such as, "How do spatial designs impact behavior and identity of consumers?" Subsequent inquiries enhanced contacts between semiotics and the geographical interpretation of symbolic meanings (drawing from landscape studies, iconography, and cartography). Also evident were connections to the sociology of inclusion and exclusion in public and private space. These changes emphasized qualitative methods and individuals over quantification and systems.
Simultaneously, themes such as food gained importance in human-geographical studies about consumption. Researchers first asked how spaces themselves are being consumed and then began to think how consumption articulates national, ethnic, and other identities. For example, in the marketing of cities and their neighborhoods, images of cultural and intellectual vivacity, cuisine, economic prosperity, comfort and convenience, and safety are valuable tools for imagemaking, place promotion, and branding. Growing concerns about the environmental impact of agriculture, the sustainability and ethics of food production, the role of food in the development and political stability of societies, and the geopolitical implications of food-related risks are examples that further show the value of joining forces also within geography. More recently, attention has turned toward animals as consumers of goods and agricultural products and as coproducers of human entertainment, sports events, and material flows. Shopping for urban animal companions and the work of professional equine athletes (such as race horses) exemplify these roles.

Institutional Structures
Interdisciplinary units often take the form of centers, programs, or institutes of a university or a college. Human geographers work in area and cultural studies programs, migration, tourism, or gender research centers, and urban ecology units in universities worldwide, examining a particular phenomenon, a cultural sphere, or a territory from a variety of perspectives. Some organizations operate with direct government or private funding in order to produce applied and strategic information for public policymakers or an industry. Examples include national health research institutes, biotechnology research centers, and ideological think tanks. The mix of participant backgrounds varies according to the task at hand, so that human geographers may work together with, for example, historians, sociologists, and anthropologists or with urban planners, economists, legal experts, and GIS modelers.
The history and research emphases of interdisciplinary units have traditionally reflected the settlement history and cultural characteristics of the surrounding region. For example, in the United States, the migration history of a university's host region has steered academic interests toward population groups and economic activity that are prominent in the area. In many smaller countries in Europe, interdisciplinary research units may have been designed to improve knowledge of economically and politically important population groups or regions because of their historical cultural influence or political and economic relevance in that country. Country research programs were characteristic of the US universities in the Cold War era, when the superpower needed comprehensive knowledge about its allies, enemies, natural resources, and global and regional (in)stabilities.
Area and cultural studies units may be considered somewhat outdated, but many of them thrive because of their culturalregional importance and the sometimes substantial funding they receive for various reasons from foreign governments, civic organizations, and private donors. Competitively funded international research groups, fixed-term centers of excellence, strategic think tanks, thematic units created for industry collaboration, and applied research network structures are particularly characteristic of the managerial university pursuing competitive profiling goals and the neoliberal logic of the 21st Century. Sometimes interdisciplinarity serves as an excuse for structural mergers motivated by budget constraints, so that large units are brought together under one administration for other than intellectual or subject-related reasons.

Two Examples
An example of a successful area and cultural studies unit is the William A. Douglass Center for Basque Studies at the University of Nevada, Reno, in the southwestern United States. The Center is small but globally influential, as it is a key hub for scholars who conduct research on the Basque population and society in Spain and France and their history and cultural influence in the New World. The Center has a unique research library, an interdisciplinary publishing program, and an international, multilingual faculty who represent a variety of social sciences and the humanities. Interdisciplinarity is promoted through international teaching and visitor activities, and daily work is conducted in four languages. The Center's small group of doctoral students works together with scholars from other departments at the University of Nevada to combine their regional-cultural expertise with broader methodological, conceptual, and theoretical knowledge. One of the collaborating departments within this network is the Department of Geography. A student may thus graduate with the interdisciplinary degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Basque Studies (Geography) and pursue an academic career in similar interdisciplinary research centers or in human geography.
The location of the Center is no accident, for Northern Nevada lies within the hearth of the Basque culture area and diaspora in the American Southwest. The need for a Basque research program emerged in the 1960s, when scholars working on a larger research project in the surrounding Great Basin recorded multiple layers of Basque history and culture in the area. Over the decades, the Center grew in size and diversified its activities, and its scope expanded from regional interests to be global in its reach, reflecting changes in both the US and Basque societies and in universities worldwide. Public engagement enjoys a prominent position: the faculty and staff work with the local community organizations to broaden knowledge of regional history and culture and to preserve and study these traits. The government of the Basque Autonomous Community in Spain and American families with Basque heritage are among the funders of the Center and its activities.
A case of the strategic advancement of interdisciplinary research and funding collaboration, and neoliberal ideals in academia, is the Urban Academy network and platform in Helsinki, the capital city of Finland. The network was founded by the City of Helsinki, University of Helsinki, and Aalto University (which is a result of the strongly politicized 2010 merger of Helsinki University of Technology, Helsinki School of Economics, and the University of Art and Design). The emphasis is on public engagement, effectiveness of research, and interdisciplinary and applied solving of concrete problems. An English-language master's program in urban studies and planning was launched in 2017, and new funding for "research supporting the development of the capital city region" was secured in 2018 from the three constituent cities of Metropolitan Helsinki, until 2023. The establishment of the Helsinki Institute for Urban and Regional Studies at the University of Helsinki in 2018 enhances this development, but also competes with similar endeavors at Aalto and some other Finnish universities despite the outspoken collaborative "vision." In both cases, human geographers have been central in fostering interdisciplinary study of contemporary urban challenges in Metropolitan Helsinki and better understanding of research-based information among city politicians, planners, and administrators. The name of the institute suggests that "studies" continues to be an attractive label for interdisciplinary research structures, at least from the perspective of funders and end users of research findings outside academia.

Interdisciplinary Practices
The names of units only tell a partial story, for many interdisciplinary activities depend on the daily practices of individual scholars. Program coordination, guest lecturing, and seminar attendance are all tasks that can enhance the role of interdisciplinarity in one's professional profile, but this may be hidden behind disciplinary definitions and titles or remain superficial contentwise. The results depend on one's capacity to communicate clearly, learn from different views, identify what one's contribution to the team is, and evaluate how other participants view this contribution.
The continuing specialization of disciplines creates new hybrids and knowledge through the crossing of conventional boundaries. Arguably, many large geography departments across the world are interdisciplinary in character, for they host a variety of specialties across the broad scope of geography. As a result of this broadness, the faculty consists of human geographers, physical geographers, and, in many countries, GIS and remote sensing experts, and urban and regional planners, each of whom represents highly specialized subfields. Human geography alone has numerous subdisciplines, the histories, methodologies, and theoretical foundations of which can be notably different from one another. Reaching fruitful engagements between the branches requires analytical attention to a unit's day-to-day interaction and organizational cohesion.
A specialist in transportation geography may approach space as logistical networks, measurable flows, and location patterns, using sophisticated GIS applications to visualize and analyze the findings. Meanwhile, the cultural geographer next door may investigate the meaning of landscapes, their material constituents, their representations in visual arts, and people's perceptions, emotions, and experiences. One collaborates with economists, planning engineers, and GIS experts, whereas the other interacts with landscape architects, architects, and art historians. In a research project about new transportation arrangements in a city, these approaches, practical planning and zoning expertise, and physical-geographical knowledge about urban nature ideally come together in complementary, mutually supporting fashion so that infrastructural solutions accommodate the pragmatic and aesthetic preferences of local residents while meeting economic, environmental, and legal requirements.
This potential for synergy and the respect for the old ideals of synthesis and unity in science serve research-profiling thematic emphases, such as the study of human-nature interfaces in urban areas. Under one banner, human and physical geographers, urban planners, and GIS specialists combine their expertise to produce interdisciplinary perspectives on cities and the environment. A study of waterways in urban areas can thus result in a holistic understanding of a physical-geographical phenomenon and its economic, ecological, and recreational impact on, and meaning to, city dwellers. By promoting these interdisciplinary possibilities within geography and countering the concerns about compartmentalization, individual departments have sought to stand out in the competition for funding and students. Administrative and teaching duties related to these activities are interdisciplinary in character.

Networking
Increasingly, participants in loosely arranged networks are scattered across space in separate departments, cities, and countries. Successful maintenance of these networks requires mobility, active communication, and coordination over distance. Technological advancements that have greatly supported this collaboration include social media and digital conferencing that facilitate convenient person-to-person and group communication, irrespective of location. Air travel continues to be irreplaceable for academics despite the growing ecological and ethical concerns related to flying, for it enables communication in person and firsthand exploration of new places. Several studies show that most scholars still prefer to exchange ideas face to face and appreciate the informal social dimensions of their work. Not surprisingly then, a vast number of congresses, thematic workshops, and seminars are organized around interdisciplinary research themes all over the world. The meetings of national or other major geographical societies, such as those of the American Association of Geographers (AAG) and the International Geographical Union (IGU), are also interdisciplinary, in that they bring together geographers from all specialties. For many geographers, the opportunity to learn about a new place and its people is a known incentive for participation. These observations underscore the complexity and informality of the practice of interdisciplinary.

Interdisciplinary Publishing
Researchers and publishers depend on one another, for research provides the raw material for publishers and researchers need to get published to promote their findings, careers, and name recognition. Not surprisingly, academic publishing has followed the trends of growth, specialization, and interdisciplinarity characteristic of academic research activities and institutions.
Typical publications with interdisciplinary contents are edited research books, in which diverse groups of scholars team up to assess particular themes from multiple angles. The discussion engages shared key concepts in order to support coherence and attract a wider audience. The whole of the book and individual chapters thus explore the way in which concepts such as space, place, and scale increase understanding of a particular human activity, relationships between nature and society, or encounters between species. Within disciplines, interdisciplinary approaches are evident in books where one or two authors expand and challenge predominant views with the help of other disciplines. This kind of boundary-crossings benefits from clear argumentative structures and the authors' ability to explain complex things in plain language.
Writing a textbook for interdisciplinary class purposes demands particular sensitivity to audience perceptions and clarity. Most authorsdand readersdare conditioned by their disciplinary cultures, which means differing expectations regarding form, content, and style. Particular attention must be paid to the definition of terms, which may sound self-evident but usually mean different things to different audiences. Human geographers understand terms such as culture, community, health, or peace very differently from their collaborators in sociology, law, medicine, or anthropology. By way of example, whereas one thinks of peace as an absence of war, the other wants to include themes such as (in)equality, justice, and human rights in the discussion. Some readers are only in the beginning of their academic careers. Self-reflection, critical identification of geography's conventions, and an understanding of what (and how) one's own discipline contributes to the study of complex phenomena are therefore necessary. In-depth analyses of the target audiences and their backgrounds will support the book's credibility in the competitive market.

Journals
Interdisciplinarity takes many forms in academic journals, where the bulk of boundary-crossing publishing takes place. The market continues to grow and diversify in reflection of changes in academia and society. One result is the diversification of thematically defined journals, which encourage and invite submissions from a variety of fields. An early example from the beginning of this trend in the 1970s is the Annals of Tourism Research, which advances the understanding of tourism by serving as a forum of interaction for multiple disciplines. The growth and specialized segmentation of the global tourism industry have greatly increased social scientific research about the branches of this industry, leading to new specialties and more narrowly defined interdisciplinary journals. One such journal, launched in 2000, is International Gambling Studies. It attracts a heterogeneous group of gam(bl)ing and tourism scholars, who represent numerous social sciences (including human geography) and use both quantitative and qualitative method(ologie)s. In addition to academics, the readers are policymakers, industry representatives, and professionals in nongovernmental health and interest organizations.
The founding of a new journal indicates that a field of research has gained prestige and moved from the margins of academic interest toward the center. New journals embody the increasing pressure to publish (fast and a lot) and many scholars' desire to find similarly minded havens from the sometimes exhausting practice of interdisciplinarity. These pressures and exhaustion may owe to national science and research funding policies, institutional competition and expectations regarding productivity or effectiveness, and individual scholars' need to stand out in, and adjust to, this environment. Interdisciplinary research, communication, and publishable writing take time, however, and supporting structures evolve more slowly than policy guidelines that demand expedience, depth, and intellectual novelty simultaneously.
Several geographical journals are interdisciplinary in character. This trend intensifies with the growing attention to globally scaled problems involving both nature and society. One example is journals that focus on a particular subfield of human geography from a broadly defined thematic perspective. For example, in Political Geography, the focus is on the spatial dimensions of political phenomena. The definition attracts not only political geographers from various research traditions, but also authors and readers from other fields, especially international relations. The unifying theme is the relationship between space and power, which is at the core of, but not exclusive to, political geography. Reflective of the surrounding soci(et)al processes, interdisciplinary themes such as political ecology and the political geographies of migration, bordering, citizenship, and securitization have grown in relative importance in the journal.
All-inclusive journals of geography seek to represent the entire spectrum of geographical research. These journals are usually older than the specialized ones, reflecting the evolution and foci of academic geography since the late 19th and early 20th Century. The publishers are likely to be national geographical societies, the task of which is to promote geographical education and knowledge, to support a professional community of geographers, and to foster holistic collaboration across geography's internal boundaries. The Annals of the American Association of Geographers and The Geographical Review, by the American Geographical Society, are examples of these journals in North America. Some societies, such as the Royal Geographical Society in Britain and the Institute of British Geographers, use a commercial publisher for the production and distribution of their journals (Area and Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers).
In some society journals, increased research specialization and the growth of the submissions flow have led to the division of the journal into separate human-and physical-geographical publications. Shifts in the balance of centers and peripheries within academia have led to changes of publication language(s). An early example of these developments is the Swedish journal Geografiska Annaler, which as published as an all-inclusive whole from 1919 until 1964 and then divided into Geografiska Annaler Series A (Physical Geography) and Series B (Human Geography). English has replaced the original mixture of Swedish, French, German, and English. The two series are published by Taylor and Francis for the Swedish Society of Anthropology and Geography.
In neighboring Finland, where geography has the history of being a national science, the all-inclusive quarterly journal Terra is published by the Geographical Society of Finland in Finnish and Swedish, the two national languages. Over the decades, this choice has supported the training of young scholars and the evolution of Finnish-and Swedish-language terminology in geography and other relevant fields. Interdisciplinarity has been fostered by publishing theme issues designed for this purpose. Confirming the relative strength of institutional geography in the country, the journal reaches its 132nd volume in 2020. The importance of the journal for Finnish geographers has greatly diminished especially over the past decade, however, not the least because the national science policy and funding organizations have stressed publishing in English in the Anglo-American core of academia.
Complicating the whole of journal publishing and interdisciplinary collaboration in geography is the observation that human and physical geographers, and their peers in other fields, follow different publication strategies and have different preferences regarding audiences, outlets, and styles of presenting their findings. Natural scientists tend to favor a rigorously structured writing style and quantification, whereas those from a social science or the humanities are wordier, qualitative, and structurally more complex in their expression. Some findings indicate that human geographers tend to favor geography journals, whereas their colleagues in physical geography prefer to publish their work in specialized journals outside geography.
Furthermore, especially scholars outside of the Anglo-American core of academia must make strategic and political-ethical choices of language when searching for outlets for research articles. Some approaches or topics that would not interest an international audience may be nationally or regionally relevant and facilitate access to valuable information in a small language. In some countries, established geographical journals may have prestige that attracts submissions from other disciplines, whereas elsewhere geography is less prominent. Here, too, factors affecting the choices include personal career goals, national science policies, evaluation and reward mechanisms, and perceptions of prestige and hierarchies. All this steers the interdisciplinary research and publishing practices of individual scholars in particular settings.

Instruction and Learning
Today's students have a wide range of choice regarding what, where, and how to study. Disciplinary specialization and strategies celebrating interdisciplinarity have provided students with an unprecedented opportunity to shop for knowledge. Structural mergers have created broad umbrellas under which departments have been dissolved to make way to programs, platforms, and remote study online. Behind curricular innovations are institutional budget cuts and the needs of scholars and their training in the new operative context. Also influential are the needs of students and their future employers (for example, an industry) and professionals' continuous education needs. The results have varied so that in some occasions the rearrangements have boosted interdisciplinarity in academic curricula and helped a university profile itself in a student-and funding-attracting manner. In other occasions, similar action has led to haphazard credit shopping, confusion, and indetermination, and interdisciplinarity has been a mere marketing slogan.
Interdisciplinary degree programs offer opportunities for joint teaching, guest lecturing, and experimentation with teaching and learning methods. On the one hand, interdisciplinarity in the classroom is instructive for students and teachers alike, for it promotes comparative and critical discussion about the seemingly self-evident. On the other hand, the joining of forces in teaching and learning may underscore one's disciplinary background and subject matter. Furthermore, interdisciplinary units often invite instructors to assess a topic from the perspective of a particular branch of knowledge, which aids comparison and demands self-reflection.
For example in a Global or a European Studies program, an adjunct faculty member from a geography department may teach an introductory course about the spatial aspects of globalization or the politics, economy, and cultures of regional integration, crosslisting the class under geography. The course may explore the interface between human geography and natural sciences in the assessment of health, (in)equality, or environmental issues, suggesting that basic knowledge about this interface is a prerequisite for dealing with human activity, its impact, and subsequent future scenarios. The course may form part of a series of specialized first-year classes, which supports a social scientific synthesis of human phenomena at a global or (sub)continental scale at a more advanced level of study. Disciplinary specialties of faculty members can be used in this way to promote interdisciplinary and holistic thinking among students and introduce to them a selection of approaches available in the emphasized field. Discussion on the styles of communication and critical self-reflection of one's own learning process can do plenty to deepen insight into interdisciplinary practices.
Interdisciplinary instruction tends to challenge a teacher's teaching philosophy because one faces a class of students from diverse academic backgrounds. It also matters where one teaches, for practices vary from one country and institution to another, and online environments are unique, as well. In North American universities where many courses can be selected freely, one teacher may have students from over half a dozen disciplines, with considerably diverse prior knowledge about the subject matter. In these cases, the challenges are at least twofold, irrespective of whether the class is listed under geography or some interdisciplinary program. One challenge is to guarantee that the applied perspectives, concepts, and goals of the class are clear to all attendees. Another is to make sure that the students are offered an equal opportunity to participate in the class discussion and exercises. Both challenges require explicit thinking about communication and the nature and practice of interdisciplinarity.
In countries where entry to an undergraduate program is based on qualifying examinations or some other form of subjectemphasizing preselection, the new students supposedly have a more even level of skills and more standardized background knowledge about their major subject, but know fairly little about approaches in other disciplines. In both contexts, the choice of reading materials must be carefully balanced. The teacher of an interdisciplinary class (like the author of an interdisciplinary textbook), therefore, needs to solve how to assess key concepts and methodologies, and how to encourage the students to search and apply information across disciplinary boundaries. Possible solutions are multiple and vary, but, generally, teachers of interdisciplinary themes and students interested in interdisciplinary learning constantly scrutinize their teaching or learning philosophies, attitudes, assumptions, and practices to get the best out of each class.

Benefits and Obstacles
Interdisciplinarity means different things to different scholars, and to researchers and administrators, and practices vary. The role of individual researchers is, in any case, crucial in the evolution of interdisciplinarity. This is so because they make decisions about interaction with others in groups, networks, and institutions. Successful collaboration requires careful and conscious attention to communication, for specialized expert communities typically have their own, nuanced vocabularies, and one word can mean different things to different people. Stereotypes, prejudice, and defense of the home turf are common despite established collaboration and common goals.
Social trust, patience, and skills that can accommodate different personalities and interests are among the critical constituents of successful interdisciplinary work. The design of interdisciplinary projects, even within geography and one cultural or linguistic sphere, demands that the participants fully understand the ways in which they themselves and others construct, order, and communicate knowledge. Also helpful is critical self-reflection on what one's own field can contribute, and how, to the common taskdand what could be done better in everyday encounters. This will require questioning the self-evident, listening to others, and letting go of mannerisms, for example, by making an effort to avoid jargon.
At one end of the spectrum of views regarding interdisciplinarity are those who see it as an opportunity and strengthdas something desirable. In these people's view, boundary crossing, experimental hybrids, and exploration beyond conventions support creativity and innovation. From this perspective, interdisciplinarity encourages discovery, continuous learning, intellectual stimuli, and freedom of choice, and is fun. Open-mindedness and constructive competition of perspectives are mutually supportive and underline the spatial dimensions of human phenomena. According to those who think of interdisciplinarity as a strength, one outcome is an enhanced and better-defined professional identity as geographer, human geographer, and, say, political or cultural geographer because interdisciplinary scholars must understand and reflect on the specifics and value of their own contribution. The holders of these views consider all this beneficial to the evolution of academic research, in general, and human geography, in particular. The emphasis here is on the first part of the word (inter): on a confident collaboration of disciplinary bases in order to understand phenomena such as migration, health and well-being, climate change, or consumption.
Those of a more critical view place the emphasis on the latter part of the word (discipline). From this perspective, caution is recommended, and disciplinary cores and boundaries need to be maintained to protect continuity and clear professional identity. The holders of this view argue that novel ideas are not always welcomed and competition, disciplinary differences, and subsequent difficulties in communication are likely to strengthen boundaries rather than lower them. Prejudice and stereotypes resurface when the collaborators discuss the best ways of testing their results, decide on the most suitable publication channels for their work, or compete over funding. The promotion of new ways of thinking and networking can require an uncomfortable degree of risk taking, not least because the pushing of boundaries of the mainstream may lead to defense reactions and resistance.
Scholars proposing establishment-shaking ideas may encounter difficulties in finding research funding, which depends on outside evaluation and trends in national or organizational science policies. Critics point out that the pursuit of interdisciplinarity may include difficulties of getting tenure and feelings of being marginalized or confused about one's professional purpose. Those working on nascent hybrids may face difficulties in finding suitable publication channels before their line of research begins to institutionalize. All these obstacles may harm individual career development and delay public scrutiny of the proposed ideas. On the other hand, successful overcoming of these difficulties can profile these individuals as path-opening pioneers in their respective fields, adding to the lure of interdisciplinary exploration.