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Language testing, migration and citizenship, cross-national perspectives on integration regimes

As this volume’s editors point out, throughout contemporary Europe, the testing of linguistic abilities in national and standard languages is at the core of the civil integration policies. One of this book’s aims is to address the complexities of this situation through a cross-national and cross-linguistic discussion, a goal achieved with an analysis that unfolds across twelve case studies, eight of which deal with European countries and four with countries elsewhere. The volume’s introduction contextualizes the concepts nation-state, language, and identity in terms of European public and private discourses on foreigners and integration. It also explains the Common European Framework for Reference, an instrument many countries utilize in developing language policy concerning immigration. At its lower levels, the CEFR assumes basic knowledge and literacy on the part of immigrants taking tests. This is unacceptable given its use ‘[. . .] where a large part of the target group are either functionally illiterate or have low literacy skills’ (p. 17). In addition, the CEFR has been used to deny people admission, residence, and citizenship on the basis of failure on tests that were actually designed for other purposes. But the editors’ main concern reflects one of the collection’s most consistent messages, that policymakers use the CEFR to underscore what new arrivals lack, rather than ‘what they might be able to contribute and add in terms of resources to a more diverse society’ (p. 18). Chapters 2 and 3 discuss language and citizenship. Written by Gabrielle Hogan-Burn, the former focuses on Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania during the 1990s. The author begins with historical background (like the chapters that follow) and then examines laws and regulations pertaining to linguistic competence and cultural knowledge, pointing out that minorities are expected to value human rights and tolerance while state mechanisms reinforce dominant norms rather than diversity and multiculturalism, a pattern subsequent contributors document in Germany and the Netherlands. In Chapter 3, Lilian Nygren-Junkin describes language testing in Sweden. She explains that the equation of language abilities with rights has been a major election issue and underscores the importance of consistently distinguishing between refugee/residency status and citizenship. The volume’s next two chapters deal with the UK and Germany, respectively. In Chapter 4, Adrian Blackledge offers an informative discussion of the 2002 extension of English language testing requirements to applicant spouses of British citizens and the 2007 decision to extend computer testing to those wishing to remain in the country through indefinite leave. Tony Blair introduced the latter alongside comments about ‘British-born suicide bombers’ and ‘the duty to integrate’. In Chapter 5, Patrick Stevenson and Livia Schanze review Germany’s ‘integration agenda’ and the development of a national curriculum for language and citizenship testing. Discussing the 2004 Immigration Law, they assert that Germany’s reactions to war and terrorism situate language requirements as a potential ‘instrument of social control’ (p. 93). Somewhat reassuring is Stevenson and Schanze’s optimism about ‘a differentiated and sophisticated approach to language learning’ (p. 103).