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Graph-Directed Approach for Downselecting Toxins for Experimental Structure Determination

Conotoxins are short, cysteine-rich peptides of great interest as novel therapeutic leads and of great concern as lethal biological agents due to their high affinity and specificity for various receptors involved in neuromuscular transmission. Currently, of the approximately 6000 known conotoxin sequences, only about 3% have associated structural characterization, which leads to a bottleneck in rapid high-throughput screening (HTS) for identification of potential leads or threats. In this work, we combine a graph-based approach with homology modeling to expand the library of conotoxin structures and to identify those conotoxin sequences that are of the greatest value for experimental structural characterization. The latter would allow for the rapid expansion of the known structural space for generating high quality template-based models. Our approach generalizes to other evolutionarily-related, short, cysteine-rich venoms of interest. Overall, we present and validate an approach for venom structure modeling and experimental guidance and employ it to produce a 290%-larger library of approximate conotoxin structures for HTS. We also provide a set of ranked conotoxin sequences for experimental structure determination to further expand this library.


Introduction
Toxins have for a long time been considered a rich natural source of therapeutic leads because of their high specificity and binding affinity for various receptors involved in different biological pathways [1,2]. The drug ziconotide, for example, is a potent analgesic derived from a toxin produced by the aquatic cone snail species Conus magus [3]. The on-average smaller size of toxins-typically <100 amino acids along with a sizeable proportion <30 amino acids long [4]-means they can be employed with relative ease in in silico high-throughput screening (HTS) to rationally identify candidates for initial scaffolds interacting with a particular receptor of interest. Although traditional HTS has focused largely on small molecules, the dwindling rate at which such drugs come to market has led to a need to search for other spaces in which to identify ligands for binding with receptors of interest. Natural products, in general, are expected to be a good source of potential therapeutic candidates, and the computational advancements in various HTS strategies make it possible to apply approaches such as docking to more than just small molecules [5][6][7]. Short toxins in particular are of interest because of their pre-existing strong affinities for protein receptors, and software has been developed for in silico screening of them [8]. In one recent study of note, for example, the authors employed a docking approach to identify α-conotoxin BuIA, produced by species Conus bullatus, as a competitive agonist for the lysophosphatidic acid receptor 6, a G-protein coupled receptor involved in the development have been developed for such purposes; we instead focus on the problem of homology modeling a set of cysteine-rich toxins known to be evolutionarily related. In our approach, we employ the number and placement of cysteines within a sequence as a rough initial estimate of functional and structural relatedness.
In the following sections, we present our graph-based approach and employ it to construct sequence graphs and identify good libraries of templates for homology modeling. We demonstrate that, despite the known relationship between the conotoxins, these libraries improve outcomes for structure homology modeling over using a 25% flat cutoff (plus 5% padding). We use our sequence graphs to construct a set of tables indicating sequences in which experimental structural characterization is predicted to be most valuable in creating a broad structure library by using homology modeling. Finally, we employ the graphs and libraries as part of a homology modeling procedure that results in a library of low-resolution structures for the conotoxins that will be of use in future high-throughput studies.

Results
We initialize the algorithm (see Figure 1 for a schematic illustration of the procedure) by separating a set of over 2000 known conotoxin sequences into databases containing four, six, eight, and ten cysteines, respectively. For each database, we construct graphs of sequences (cf. Figure 2) in which an edge between two nodes (i.e., sequences) represents a pairwise alignment that is of sufficient length and percent identity to fall into the safe homology modeling zone above the Rost curve (cf. Equation (1) and Figure A1). Some portions of the sequences have known structures, such that the corresponding nodes are annotated with the relevant PDB ID(s). We employ the graphs thus generated to iteratively add nodes with structures to a library of templates for homology modeling. We term this set of sequences {L ex }, the set of existing structural library templates. Nodes are added to {L ex } in a greedy manner, in order of highest node degree, such that the resulting library will contain enough templates to homology model the maximum number of non-structurally-characterized sequences possible but with minimal sequence overlap and retaining a number of non-library structures for quality assessment. Since this is approximately the vertex-covering problem of a graph, we cannot find a globally optimal solution, as that problem is NP-complete [38]. We halt the procedure once either we have no further nodes with structures to add or there are no remaining sequences in a given connected component of the graph that are not connected to at least one library template sequence, such that all sequences in that component may be structurally characterized by homology modeling. We refer to the set of sequences that may be homology modeled based on set {L ex } as set {C (L ex }) that are covered by {L ex }. We next perform a similar procedure-but without the constraint of structure annotation-on the nodes absent {L ex } to identify the sets {L proj } that are of interest for experimental structural characterization such that they cover the remaining set {C L proj } . Note that it is possible for nodes to belong to both {C (L ex }) and {L proj }, and indeed, a small number do. Schematic of a simple graph-based algorithm for constructing a library of structural templates for homology modeling. For each connected component in the graph of sequences, where an edge represents the ability to homology model one sequence based on another, we employ a greedy approach to find a good library of template structures that cover as much of the sequence space as possible. For computation of the sequence set {L proj } of interest for experimental characterization, we skip consideration of the structures and run the algorithm on the subset with structure-associated sequences removed.
In Figure 2, we present the sequence graphs for sets of conotoxin sequences with four, six, eight, and ten cysteines, respectively. We specifically display {L proj } (in green), the experimental structural characterization of which would lead to coverage by homology modeling of the set {C L proj } (in magenta) that comprises sequences with no characterized structure and not covered by set {L ex }. We also show the set {L ex } (in orange), which we employ to predict structures for the set {C (L ex )} (in blue) by homology modeling. In Figure A2, we present the same sequence graphs, but we color the nodes by relative sequence length instead of set occupation. A significant proportion of isolated sequences (nodes with no connections that therefore cannot be homology modeled) are relatively short (cf. the ring of small red nodes in Figure A2A and to a lesser extent in Figure A2B), which demonstrates that a high proportion of isolated nodes may be characterized well through rapid ab initio modeling rather than needing full experimental characterization, particularly for the four and six cysteine sequences.
These figures are a graphical illustration of the sequence space of conotoxins that may be used as a guide to experiment or to produce low-resolution structures for initial HTS. Specifically, out of the 801 sequences with four cysteines, 61 (7.6% of total) currently have experimentally-resolved structures. The graph-based approach selected 49 (6.1% of total) of these structures as comprising the four cysteine template library (set {L ex }; blue circles in Figure 2A, while the 12 unselected structures are represented in black), which allowed for homology modeling of 143 (17.9% of total) sequences (set {C (L ex )}; orange circles in Figure 2A). This corresponds to an increase of over 230% (143/61) for the number of structures employable for HTS over the original 61. The graph-based approach indicated that seven sequences from {C (L ex )} (hybrid green/blue circles in the graph) and a further 74 sequences (81 overall-10.1% of total) would need to be characterized experimentally to allow for homology modeling of the remaining 151 (18.9% of total). Of the 453 sequences assigned to {L proj }, 372 (82.1%) are isolated nodes with no edges; of these, 298 (80.1%) are shorter than 20 amino acids, and 353 (94.9%) are shorter than 30 amino acids in length and thus many of this remainder may be rapidly modeled using ab initio techniques. Figure 2. Graph of conotoxins containing (A) four cysteines, (B) six cysteines, (C) eight cysteines, and (D) ten cysteines where nodes are sequences and edges exist between sequences with pairwise alignments that have high enough length and percent identity to fall above the Rost curve with n = 5% (Equation (1)). We show the set {L ex } of sequences added to the template libraries in orange, the set of sequences corresponding to unselected structures in black, the set of covered sequences {C(L ex )} that we homology model based on the templates included in the library in blue, and the set of projected sequences {L proj } in green in which structures are in need of characterization in order that the rest of the sequences {C(L proj )} in magenta may be homology modeled based on some template. Nodes belonging to both {C(L ex )} and {L proj } are displayed as half green, half blue. The sizes of the nodes correspond to their degree; that is, the number of other sequences that they can be modeled based on or used to model. Node locations and edge lengths were chosen for ease of visualization of separate connected components. Visualization of the graphs was produced with Gephi 0.9.2 [39].
For conotoxins with six cysteines (cf. Figure 2B), 44 (4.0% of total) out of the 1113 sequences currently have experimentally-resolved structures. The graph-based approach selected 30 (2.7% of total) of these structures as comprising the six cysteine template library, which allowed for homology modeling of 148 (13.3% of total) sequences. This corresponds to an increase of over 330% (148/44) for the number of structures employable for HTS over the original 44. The graph-based approach indicated that seven sequences from {C (L ex )} and a further 180 sequences (187 overall-16.8% of total) would need to be characterized experimentally to allow for homology modeling of the remaining 509 (45.7% of total). Of the 419 sequences assigned to {L proj }, 239 (57.0%) are isolated nodes; of these, 86 (36.0%) are shorter than 20 amino acids, and 163 (68.2%) are shorter than 30 amino acids in length.
For conotoxins with eight cysteines (cf. Figure 2C), 2 (1.1% of total) out of the 190 sequences currently have experimentally-resolved structures. These two structures were selected as comprising the entire template library here, which allowed for homology modeling of a 17 (8.9% of total) sequences. This corresponds to an increase of 850% (17/2) for the number of structures employable for HTS over the original two. The graph-based approach indicated that one sequence from {C (L ex )} and a further 29 (30 overall-15.8% of total) would need to be characterized experimentally to allow for homology modeling of the remaining 101 (53.1% of total). Of the 71 sequences assigned to {L proj } sequences, 41 (57.7%) are isolated nodes, but of these, only 5 (12.2%) are shorter than 30 amino acids in length, leaving a good proportion that would likely require experimental characterization to solve their structures. Finally, there are no known structures corresponding to ten cysteine sequences so there is no current coverage (cf. Figure 2D). The graph-based approach indicated that a further 9 of the total 53 sequences (17.0%) would have to be characterized to allow for homology modeling of the remaining 34 (64.2%). Of the 19 sequences assigned to {L proj } (52.6%), 10 are isolated nodes, and of these, none are shorter than 30 amino acids in length.
For characterization of the remaining structures, focusing efforts on the nodes of the highest degree in the graphs is disproportionately rewarding, since a greater degree in the graph corresponds to the ability to cover a greater number of sequences. In Tables 1-4, we present and rank the set of conotoxins that are of greatest interest for experimental characterization, as availability of experimental structures for these sequences (belonging to set {L proj }) would allow homology modeling of the remainder of the sequences (belonging to set {C L proj } ). Thus, we suggest that experimental structural resolution begin with those sequences listed at the top of their respective tables and work downwards in order to most rapidly and efficiently structurally characterize the sequence space of the conotoxins. Table 1. List of sequences containing four cysteines in order of interest for experimental characterization, based on the degree (sequence coverage) in alignment graphs (cf. Figure 2). Name or names of sequences are taken from the Conoserver database [40]. Multiple names for the same sequence indicate the same sequence is produced by different species or has different post-translational modifications. Node degree corresponds to the number of sequences with pairwise alignments that are long enough and have high enough percent identity to be homology modeled with the given sequence as a template. Cysteines are highlighted in red to guide the eye. We note in the fourth column the pharmacological family, although it is unknown for the majority of sequences, as it requires a separate experimental determination in most cases.  Table 2. List of sequences containing six cysteines in order of interest for experimental characterization, based on the degree (sequence coverage) in alignment graphs (cf. Figure 2). Name or names of sequences are taken from the Conoserver database [40]. Multiple names for the same sequence indicate the same sequence is produced by different species or has different post-translational modifications.
Node degree corresponds to the number of sequences with pairwise alignments that are long enough and have a high enough percent identity to be homology modeled with the given sequence as a template.
Cysteines are highlighted in red to guide the eye. We note in the fourth column the pharmacological family, although it is unknown for the majority of sequences, as it requires a separate experimental determination in most cases.    Table 3. List of sequences containing eight cysteines in order of interest for experimental characterization, based on the degree (sequence coverage) in alignment graphs (cf. Figure 2). Name or names of sequences are taken from the Conoserver database [40]. Multiple names for the same sequence indicate the same sequence is produced by different species or has different post-translational modifications. Node degree corresponds to the number of sequences with pairwise alignments that are long enough and have a high enough percent identity to be homology modeled with the given sequence as a template. Cysteines are highlighted in red to guide the eye. We note in the fourth column the pharmacological family, although it is unknown for the majority of sequences, as it requires a separate experimental determination in most cases.  Table 4. List of sequences containing ten cysteines in order of interest for experimental characterization, based on the degree (sequence coverage) in alignment graphs (cf. Figure 2). Name or names of sequences are taken from the Conoserver database [40]. Multiple names for the same sequence indicate the same sequence is produced by different species or has different post-translational modifications.

Sequence
Node degree corresponds to the number of sequences with pairwise alignments that are long enough and have a high enough percent identity to be homology modeled with the given sequence as a template.
Cysteines are highlighted in red to guide the eye. We note in the fourth column the pharmacological family, although it is unknown for the majority of sequences, as it requires a separate experimental determination in most cases. In Figure 3, we assess the quality of the template libraries (Tables A1-A3) constructed using the graph-based approach employing the Rost cutoff, and compared with a set of template libraries based on a static 25% rule-of-thumb cutoff. We perform two assessments: an "in-library" assessment, and an "out-of-library" assessment. In the in-library assessment ( Figure 3A,B), we construct homology models for each structure in the library using the rest of the library as potential templates and compute the backbone root-mean-square deviation (RMSD) between each modeled structure and the corresponding experimental structure. Compared to the static cutoff, the Rost cutoff produces modeled structures with lower RMSD: the mean RMSD employing the Rost cutoff has a downwards shift from 4.0 ± 0.7 Å to 1.5 ± 0.2 Å for the four cysteine library and from 3.8 ± 0.6 Å to 2.1 ± 0.2 Å for the six cysteine library. In the out-of-library assessment ( Figure 3C,D), we construct homology models for the known structures that were not employed as part of the template libraries ( Figure 2, black nodes), and compute the backbone RMSD between each modeled structure and the corresponding experimental structure. The mean RMSD has a downward shift from 1.7 ± 0.1 Å to 1.0 ± 0.2 Å for the four cysteine library and from 1.82 ± 0.09 Å to 1.4 ± 0.1 Å for the six cysteine library. The relatively low RMSD for the in-library assessment demonstrates that the template libraries cover a substantial proportion of the known sequence space, while the relatively low RMSD for the out-of-library assessment demonstrates the utility of the homology-modeled structures as part of HTS [41]. Despite the known relationships among the toxins, there is a statistically significant improvement (downwards shift in the distribution, two-tailed Kolmogorov-Smirnov test with p < 0.05) for both in-and out-of-library structures when using the Rost cutoff as compared to the 25% cutoff. Finally, in Supporting File "finalmodels.zip", we attach the set of structures computed by homology modeling (see Figure 4 for a schematic of the procedure), corresponding to sequences in the set {C (L ex )}, with the four, six, and eight cysteine library structures used as templates. Because we divided the sequences into subsets based on the number of cysteines in a sequence, we are able to use the cysteines aligned as an additional criterion during the homology modeling procedure. The average PROCHECK G-factor, which is a log-odds score based on the likelihood of observing the given distributions of φ-ψ and χ 1 -χ 2 angles in proteins, is 0.086 ± 0.005 for the reported four cysteine models, −0.103 ± 0.007 for the reported six cysteine models, and −0.2 ± 0.1 for the report eight cysteine models. Since this score is not a relative measure and values above −0.5 are generally considered acceptable, this provides evidence that the structures we have computed are physically reasonable. We further assess the quality of the homology modeling protocol by using it to model each structure in the library with templates selected from other structures in that library. The distribution of root-mean-square deviation (RMSD) values of the top three models based on our ranking criteria (see Materials and Methods for details) compared with each experimental structure is shown in Figure 5A,B. We see that our method performs well [41]: the average RMSD in the four cysteine architecture is 2.00 ± 0.09 Å with at least 80% of the models having less than 3 Å RMSD, and the average RMSD in the six cysteine architecture is 2.3 ± 0.2 Å with 75% of the models having less than 3 Å RMSD. Most of the higher RMSD values are contributed by the flexible loops and coils. When we look at the RMSD distribution after rejecting those atoms that cannot be structurally aligned, as in case of loops and coils, the distributions improve significantly (Figure A3), with a mean of 1.55 ± 0.09 Å for the four cysteine architecture and a mean of 1.2 ± 0.1 Å for the six cysteine architecture, with 100% of the models for both archtiectures having less than 3.5 Å deviations. A second test for validating our method was performed by checking the distribution of native contacts in the modeled structures ( Figure 5C,D). Two pairs of residues were defined to have a native contact if the distance between the Cα atoms in the native experimental structure was less than 8 Å, and the pair was at least four residues apart (Cα i -Cα i+4 ). At least 60% of the native structures were captured in our models, with the distribution means of 80% ± 1% and 81% ± 1% for the four and six cysteine architectures, respectively. . Schematic of procedure for producing homology modeled structures from library templates for conotoxin sequences with unknown structure lying in the set {C (L ex )}. We employ a BLAST alignment procedure and specifically force the cysteines to align to further refine the templates that were originally chosen for inclusion using the graph-based Rost criterion. Graph inset of the eight cysteine graph is an example. The inset consisting of an example alignment input figure was created using the alignment obtained from BLAST [42] and visualized with Aliview [43].

Discussion
By employing a conceptually simple heuristic approach that may also be used for analysis of other short, disulfide-rich, evolutionarily-related peptides, we have constructed a set of sequence graphs that allowed us to rank non-isolated sequences without corresponding characterized structures in an order that would allow for the most rapid expansion of the conotoxin structure library. We constructed template libraries for homology modeling of conotoxins based on the number of cysteines contained in the sequence. We demonstrated that libraries constructed to account for the shorter lengths of the conotoxins produce homology models that are more accurate than libraries constructed with a static 25% cutoff. Currently, sufficient information is not available to homology model any sequences containing more than eight cysteines, as experimental characterization has focused preferentially on the shorter conotoxins. We employed our libraries to predict a set of structures from sequence using homology modeling, allowing us to expand the library of conotoxin structures usable for HTS by about 290% overall, although a number of sequences remain without any associated structural predictions. We assessed the quality of these structures through standard techniques to demonstrate they are expected to be reasonably accurate and therefore may be employed for high-throughput screening of conotoxins as novel therapeutics for new receptor targets. We note that of those sequences that were isolated in our graphs-that is, had no edges-80% of those containing four cysteines and 36% of those containing six cysteines were under 20 amino acids long, marking them as good candidates for a high-throughput ab initio modeling procedure, rather than necessarily for experimental characterization, as they will likely be tractable but will not contain any information about other sequences.
For experimentalists interested in investigating the conotoxins we suggest in the table, we note that the preponderance of peptide structures that we employed for the structure libraries were determined with solution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). Maintenance of the tertiary fold of conopeptides, particularly after their secretion into the extracellular environment, depends more on its disulfide bonds and less on the presence of a hydrophobic core [44]. As such, compression artifacts on the free/unbound structures of these disulfide-rich peptides can arise due to crystal packing forces in X-ray studies, which has been observed in the literature [45]. It was also shown recently that solution NMR structures of disulfide-rich peptides based primarily on nuclear Overhauser effects (NOEs) are comparable to a crystallographic resolution of around 2.5 Å, while refinement with residual dipolar couplings (RDCs) can improve this to around 1-1.5 Åresolution [46]. Solution NMR studies, therefore, in addition to providing ensembles that inform on the conformational dynamics, can yield highly appropriate and cost-effective structures compared to those obtained from X-ray or cryo-EM [47].
One important point about short, disulfide-rich peptides that we have not addressed in this work is the existence of so-called "disulfide isomers." Under certain environmental conditions, there is experimental evidence suggesting that some toxins do not exist as a single set of "native" structures but as a heterogeneous-perhaps metastable-ensemble populated with strikingly different conformations corresponding to differing patterns of cysteine connectivity [48]. Although many conotoxins do have a single thermodynamically stable native state as dictated by their sequence similarity, [49,50] or can be stabilized in one through the use of dicarba or diselenide bonds [51,52], these disulfide isomers, if kinetically or thermodynamically controlled, may be employed to expand the library of structures for HTS. This represents an important area of future work.
Although we do not directly address the question of structure-function relationships in this work, the graph-based method does suggest an interesting route forward. It has been shown that in addition to strict structural contributions, conotoxin binding is also heavily related to surface electrostatics [53], and, indeed, this concept was formalized (as "Protein Surface Topography") and employed by Kasheverov et al. [54] to design stronger-binding α-conotoxin mutants. Another intriguing line of further study, therefore, might be to construct a graph on the basis of the Protein Surface Topography similarities for those structures we have modeled in this work and compare and contrast between that and sequence similarity.

Data Acquisition and Curation
For use in construction of the template libraries, we employed a set of 142 conotoxin structures downloaded from the PDB [55], which we found by searching "conotoxin" on the PDB. We manually removed several false positives, such as a crystal structure of the acetylcholine-binding protein that was identified due to the title of the associated paper. We also manually removed several sequences that were identical to natural conotoxin sequences but modified by the replacement of disulfide bonds with dicarba bonds. We did not remove redundant sequences consisting of multiple characterization methods and, in a few cases, structural isomers resulting from different disulfide-bond connections.
In future, further work will be done to properly assess the likelihood of multiple stable or metastable states, but we do not address this consideration further here.
For use in the analysis detailed in this article, we downloaded a set of 6255 peptide sequences from the Conoserver [40] using the "Tools > Download Conoserver's Data" command. We retained only sequences containing four, six, eight, or ten cysteines. We removed anything with the word "precursor" or "patent" in the name, as precursor sequences contain, in addition to the mature peptide sequence that folds into the toxin, a signal sequence and N-and C-terminal pro-regions that are cleaved in the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus [56]. A manual inspection of sequences labeled "patent" revealed that many were insufficiently characterized-for example, they noted only the cysteine pattern or they mixed precursor and mature toxin sequences with no indication. We also added to the sequence list any sequence that corresponded to one of the PDB structures that was not already contained in the list. Once the set of all sequences was finalized, we split it into four subsets corresponding to the number of cysteines contained. In the end we retained for analysis a total of 801 unique sequences containing four cysteines, 1113 unique sequences containing six cysteines, 190 unique sequences containing eight cysteines, and 53 unique sequences containing ten cysteines.

Details of Library Template Selection Procedure
For each subset of sequences corresponding to a different number of contained cysteines, we created an alignment graph as follows. For every sequence, we computed a pairwise alignment with every other sequence, using the "PairwiseAligner" class in the "Align" module of the Biopython package [57], in global mode, with a gap-open penalty of -10 and a gap-extend penalty of −0.5. Employing the networkx Python package [58], we constructed a graph in which nodes represented sequences and we placed an edge between two nodes whenever the percent identity of the highest-percentage pairwise alignment of the two corresponding sequences was greater than [23], where L is the length of the alignment in numbers of amino acid residues and we set n = 5 (%). We constructed two different template libraries for each subset of sequences, one from the pairwise alignment graph and one from a static 25%-identity cutoff (with n = 5 %). When creating the graph-based libraries (see also Figure 1), we first identified all connected components in the graph. For each connected component, we chose first the sequence with the highest node degree (number of distinct edges) that corresponded to a structure in the set of 142 structures downloaded from the PDB, added it to the library, and removed that sequence and all sequences it shared an edge with from the graph. We continued this procedure until one of two criteria was satisfied: (i) there were no longer any sequences in the connected component with corresponding structures or (ii) there were no longer any sequences in the connected component without corresponding structures. These criteria corresponded to the following two situations, respectively: (i) there were no other structures available for inclusion in the library or (ii) the entire connected component was able to be homology modeled based on the structures included in the library up until that point. For construction of the static sequence-identity cutoff library, sequences within each data set were clustered and a representative sequence from each cluster chosen by using the "sequence_db.filter" command of MODELLER version 9.20 (UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA) [59,60], which groups sequences together if their sequence identity is greater than a specified cutoff value. The set of cluster representatives became a library of structures in which between any pair the sequence identity was less than the specified cutoff value.
For computation of the homology modeled structures based on the library templates that were used to assess and compare the quality of the two libraries, we used the "align2d" command followed by the "automodel" procedure from MODELLER 9.20 with default parameters. We computed five models for each sequence from each template (except for itself, in the case of library structures being modeled based on other library structures). The best homology model was chosen as the one with the lowest backbone RMSD to the known or experimentally-resolved structure, using the "align" command in PyMOL [61] that superimposes two structures via a structure superposition that is constrained by a prior sequence alignment.

Homology Modeling Criteria
After assessing the quality of the template libraries, we used them to construct via homology modeling a database of structures for those conotoxin sequences (set {C (L ex )} shown in blue in Figures 2 and A2) that are covered by those libraries (set {L ex } given in orange in Figures 2 and A2). The pipeline employed for building these homology-modeled structures is detailed here. A schematic of this pipeline is given in Figure 4. The four cysteine (4C) subset included 143 such sequences for which structures were computed by homology modeling from 49 library structure templates, while the six cysteine (6C) subset included 148 sequences for which structures were computed by homology modeling from 30 library structure templates. There was only one existing non-isolated library structure template having eight cysteine (8C) architecture, and 17 sequences were modeled from it, while no ten cysteine (10C) structures could be modeled, since to date there are no structures of conotoxins containing 10 cysteines deposited in the PDB.
Alignment of each of the subject sequences was performed with those sequences that have a structure present in the template library using BLAST [42]. BLOSUM62 substitution matrix [62] was used with a gap-open penalty of −10 and a gap-extend penalty of −0.5. For each sequence, structures were considered possible templates if they fulfilled the following criteria: (i) sequence identity of ≥70%; (ii) ≥ 70% of sequence length covered; (iii) E-value ≤ 1 × 10 −5 . Additionally, we constrained the cysteines in the sequence to be aligned in the following manner. If there was a one-position shift in the sequence alignment that would allow the cysteines to align, the gap penalties at that position were removed to enforce cysteine alignment. If a greater than one-position shift would be required to allow the cysteines to align, such a template was not considered.
Structural homology modeling was performed using the MODELLER version 9.20 package [59,60]. Multiple templates were used to aid in the modeling process for those subjects where more than one sequence satisfied the above-mentioned criteria. The models were further relaxed by several steps of conjugate gradients and molecular dynamics with simulated annealing as recommended in the thorough Variable Target Function Method (VTFM) optimization of MODELLER [63]. Due to the alignment of cysteines from the template structures, the disulfide bonds could be constrained by patches. Ten such models were generated for each subject sequence. Subjects 107 and 110 from 4C architecture and subject 2 from 6C architecture did not correspond to any templates that satisfied all of our above criteria. Nevertheless, we modeled these sequences based on the best sequence match.
We selected three top models for each subject based on the Discrete Optimized Protein Energy (DOPE) score [64] and the PROCHECK G-factor [65]. DOPE, a typical criterion for assessing the quality of a modeled structure, is an atomistic distance-dependent statistical potential calculated from a large set of refined high resolution PDB structures. The PROCHECK G-factor is a log-odds score based on observed distributions of the φ-ψ, and χ 1 -χ 2 values measuring whether the model is physically reasonable or if it contains unusual stereochemical configurations. In this study, we normalized the DOPE and G-factor scores and used a combined product of probabilities to rank and sort the structures. The top three models selected for each subject are reported in Supplementary File "finalmodels.zip", along with their DOPE, G-factor, MODELLER optimization function value (molpdf), GA341 scores [66], and the Ramachandran plots for each of these models. All RMSD calculations were performed with Pymol [61]. There is only one available non-isolated structure in the 8C extant library. This was used to model all 17 subject sequences. The best three models for each sequence along with their assessment scores are reported in the database.

Quantification and Statistical Analysis
We use the Kolmogorov-Smirnov two-tailed test as implemented in the SciPy package [67] and referred to by the "ks2samp" command to assess whether we may reject the null hypothesis of the RMSDs of experimental structures from homology models based on different template libraries being drawn from the same distribution. We employ a significance level of p = 0.05, meaning that we reject the null hypothesis if the KS statistic D returned by the test is such that D > α n+m nm , where α = 1.224 for a significance level of p = 0.05, and n and m are the number of samples in each set, respectively. The analysis is referred to in Section 2.

Conclusions
Overall, the work in this article presents a rational graph-based algorithm that we employ to expand the repertoire of known conotoxin structures for application in a high-throughput manner as part of the early stages of drug design. We expect that the libraries, the expanded set of structures, and the ranking of sequences in terms of the degree of connectedness to other sequences will be valuable resources improving the prospects of conotoxins as novel therapeutic leads and that our approach may be employed for initial characterization of other sets of evolutionarily-related toxins.   (1)) of minimum percentage identity for homology modeling as a function of pairwise alignment length with n = 5% padding as employed in this work. As the length of the alignment decreases, the minimum percent identity for homology modeling increases, and there is a particularly rapid increase below alignments of about 25 amino acids, where a fairly large proportion of toxins reside. Figure A2. Graph of conotoxins containing (A) four cysteines, (B) six cysteines, (C) eight cysteines, and (D) ten cysteines where nodes are sequences and edges exist between sequences with pairwise alignments that have a high enough length and percent identity to fall above the Rost curve with n = 5% (Equation (1)). Colors show the relative sequence lengths of each node, but the color scale of each graph is independent of the others. The sizes of the nodes correspond to their degree; that is, the number of other sequences that they can be modeled based on or used to model. Node locations and edge lengths were chosen for ease of visualization of separate connected components. Visualization of the graphs was produced with Gephi 0.9.2 [39]. Table A1. List of conotoxins with corresponding PDB structure IDs [55] comprising the 4C library. Name or names of sequences are taken from the Conoserver database [40]. Multiple names for the same sequence indicate the same sequence is produced by different species or has different post-translational modifications.  Table A2. List of conotoxins with corresponding PDB structure IDS [55] comprising the 6C library. Name or names of sequences are taken from the Conoserver database [40]. Multiple names for the same sequence indicate the same sequence is produced by different species or has different post-translational modifications.  Table A3. List of conotoxins with corresponding PDB structure IDS [55] comprising the 8C library. Name or names of sequences are taken from the Conoserver database [40]. Multiple names for the same sequence indicate the same sequence is produced by different species or has different post-translational modifications.