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Toward an integrated model of panic disorder.

Biological, cognitive, behavioral, and psychodynamic theories about the etiology, development, and treatment of panic disorder have developed largely independently of each other. This has led to the assumption that they are contradictory, and to considerable controversy and debate. This paper highlights areas of early convergence of these viewpoints by reviewing how each perspective interacts with a proposed model of "central noradrenergic hypersensitivity" in panic disorder.