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NAMING NEFAS: CLEOPATRA ON THE SHIELD OF AENEAS1

Fordyce suggested that the omission was deliberate and consistent with contemporary poetic practice: ‘it is a tribute to the success of the campaign of propaganda directed against Antony that the Augustan poets never use Cleopatra’s name’.2 Nisbet and Hubbard had already noted the use of various words in place of her name: regina (Hor. Carm. 1.37.7, Prop. 3.11.39), mulier (Hor. Carm. 1.37.32; Prop. 3.11.49, 4.6.65), and illa (Prop. 4.6.63), amongst others.3 Furthermore, the absence of the name cannot be put down to metre, as Lucan 9.1071 attests. Therefore, though it is impossible to establish with certainty the deliberate avoidance by Virgil and his peers, the habit of referring to the queen by various terms – but never by name – lends weight to Fordyce’s suggestion. If indeed Cleopatra’s name were a kind of poetic taboo we may detect a hint to that effect in nefas at 688. Servius regards nefas as an exclamation of disgust not so much at the idea of a Roman having a foreign wife but rather at the notion of a woman following her husband to war.4 But the ancient etymology of the word nefas from fari ‘to speak’ also confers on Cleopatra’s name the sense of ‘something that ought not to be