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Chimerism, Transplant Tolerance and Beyond.

The present review discusses current developments in tolerance induction for solid organ transplantation with a particular emphasis on chimerism-based approaches. It explains the basic mechanisms of chimerism-based tolerance and provides an update on ongoing clinical tolerance trials. The concept of "delayed tolerance" is presented, and ongoing preclinical studies in the non-human primate setting - including current limitations and hurdles regarding this approach - are illustrated. In addition, a brief overview and update on cell-based tolerogenic clinical trials is provided. In a critical approach, advantages, limitations, and potential implications for the future of these different regimens are discussed.