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Caffeine and pregnancy. A research review and recommendations for clinical practice.

Effects of caffeine on reproduction in animals include fetal deaths, low birth weights, small litters, delayed bone development, and limb abnormalities. Few studies have examined the effects of caffeine on reproductive outcomes in humans. While some retrospective studies have found an association between high caffeine intake and fetal death, stillbirth, premature birth, and birth defects, others have not. Related research to date is reviewed, and the major sources of dietary caffeine and suggestions for decreasing caffeine intake through alternative food stuffs are provided.