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The Late Roman Insula in Nea Paphos in the Light of New Research

This paper deal with the House of Aion and the North-Eastern House which occupy part of a late Roman insula in Nea Paphos in Cyprus. The relative chronology of the buildings, the range, the spatial arrangement of both buildings, and the functions of the House of Aion are discussed. The research is based on the analysis of documentation and excavation reports on the work carried out in the House of Aion and the North-Eastern House between 1982 and 2008 and on the new observation of the arrangement of the walls, floors, mosaics, paintings, and the architectural decoration, as a result of fieldwork during 2014 – 2016. Research indicates that this was the longest existing insula in this part of the town. In this area, unusual features, not seen before in other buildings from the area of Nea Paphos, may be observed. My research fills in the gap in knowledge on Nea Paphos during the late Roman period. Studies of the House of Aion and the North-Eastern House will provide information concerning not only the architecture but also the social, administrative and economical changes that took place in Nea Paphos during the late Roman period. The study of these buildings will supplement our current knowledge of residential architecture and buildings performing public functions. To date, only limited number of information on insulas with residential and public buildings from Cyprus has been published.


Introduction
The aim of my research, which has been funded by the National Science Center (Cracow, Poland) 1 , is to study the architecture of buildings from the late Roman insula at Nea Paphos (see Figure 1). The fieldwork area is situated on the so-called Maloutena Plateau in the southwestern part of the ancient city on the Paphian Peninsula 2 , specifically the House of Aion and the North-Eastern House which are found in this location. In this paper the relative chronology of the buildings, the range, the functional and spatial arrangement of both buildings, and the role of the House of Aion will be explored. The results expand our knowledge on the fascinating and as yet unexplored insula from Nea Paphos and increase our knowledge of the history of this city in the late Roman period. and other artefacts 6 that have helped to date the various phases of the development of this area. However, architectural studies 7 on these buildings have not been completely published. It is still unknown how many building phases took place in this area, and there is no complete chronology of these buildings. Unclear also is the size of the House of Aion and the North-Eastern House and the plan of these buildings. Analysis of possible variants of the communication system in the buildings, lighting sources, water supply and drainage system have not been conducted to date, nor an analysis of the modifications of constructions of these buildings with the use of decorated architectural elements. There is no agreement on when the buildings were last occupied or what happened after the residents had left. The main function of the House of Aion is also unknown.

Methodology
My research was conducted partly in Poland, in the archives of the Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology of Warsaw University and the Institute of Mediterranean and Oriental Culture of the Polish Academy of Sciences, and partly in Paphos, at the archaeological site during the working seasons of the Polish Archaeological Mission.
I analyzed the documentation conducted during 1982 -2008. A synthesis of data regarding the stratigraphic layers, the walls, the artifacts and the decorations was performed. Subsequently, during the work on the House of Aion and the North-Eastern House, the inventory of the walls, floors and thresholds was made. New photographic documentation was prepared with Agisoft PhotoScan, which will provide in the future a three-dimensional visualization of the solid objects. Orthophotomaps of the walls were created and the drawings of the walls with the marked phases were prepared in the AutoCad. In 3D Studio Max, 3D visualizations will be generated. The aim of these methods is to study possible variants of the communication system in the buildings, sources of light, several phases of construction and analysis of Daszewski, I. Zych (Warsaw, 2008), 518-523;E. Papuci Władyka, Nea Pafos. Studia nad ceramiką hellenistyczną z polskich wykopalisk (1965 [Nea Paphos. Studies on Hellenistic pottery from Polish excavations ] (Kraków, 1995 decorative architectural elements. This will also link building structures with iconographic program and help to determine the function of the House of Aion. In order to obtain a complete picture of the history and the functions of the House of Aion and the North-Eastern House it is necessary to make a comparative analysis.

Findings/Results
The House of Aion and the North-Eastern House are located on top of earlier buildings 8 . Surveys show that the oldest structures in this part of town date to the late Classical period 9 . In the Hellenistic period new structures in the insula 9B appeared 10 . During the Roman times the western part of this insula was replaced by structures belonging to the Villa of Theseus 11 . During the late Roman period, at the eastern facade of the Villa of Theseus, the North-South street was built. The construction of this street determined the creation of the House of Aion in the 4th century AD 12 . The North-Eastern House was built roughly at the same time or not long after. Traces of subsequent activity were also found in the House of Aion and the North-Eastern House. It is difficult to determine the final habitation of this area, although the latest fragments of ceramics date to the 6th and 7th centuries AD. (See Figure 2) 8. W. A. Daszewski, "Nea Paphos 1992," in Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean IV, Reports 1992, ed. M. Gawlikowski, W. A. Daszewski (Warsaw, 1993), 85; W. A. Daszewski, "Nea Paphos 1990Report," in, Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean II, Reports 1989, ed. M. Gawlikowski, W. A. Daszewski (Warsaw, 1991 (Varsovie, 1997); S. Medeksza, Willa Tezeusza w Nea Pafos. Rezydencja antyczna, 1992, 5-8, 36-37, 42-45, 64-65, 69. 12. B. Lichocka, H. Meyza, Seismic events and the evidence of coins and pottery. The case of destruction of the House of Aion in Paphos, 2001, 145-208;W. A. Daszewski, "Nea Paphos 1965

The northern part of the late Roman insula is occupied by the so-called
North-Eastern House (see Figure 3). The house was built on an east-west axis. The latest destruction of the North-Eastern House dates, on the basis of pottery analysis to the end of 5th century or the beginning of the 6th century. The latest coin is dated to the end of the 4th century (Valentian/ Valens)13. The building was destroyed by an earthquake in the late 4th or early 5th century14. There are however traces of later occupation of this area. During the Constantine period mosaics in rooms 11, 20, 22, 23 and 24 were built. Late walls with shallow foundations corresponding to dust-covered floors also date to this period 15 . It is assumed that the eastern part of the North-East House, which has rooms with mosaics, was definitely the most important. The architectural patterns of the room 24N and the floor, which was made of rectangular slabs, suggests that this area was a courtyard 16 . In room 27 the floor was made of stone slabs at presumably was an open space used for domestic purposes. Later, after the main phase of occupation of the North-Eastern House, this area was re-used by squatters who combined this facility into one complex with room 25 17 . Further to the east of room 27, there were another rooms, but their damage makes their interpretation impossible 18 .
In the western part of the North-Eastern House several compartments were revealed but their functions are difficult to know. In the north-western part there were rooms with channels and cisterns. To the east of room 35 is a large 15. W. A. Daszewski, "Nea Paphos, 1998,"  courtyard, extending over an area of 9 m east to west 19 . Its northern wall is very ruined and it is not clear how it ran, just like the eastern end 20 . The building located in the southern part of the late Roman insula is the so-called House of Aion, named because of the great mosaic in the main room with a representation of the Greek god of the time, Aion 21 . Other panels portray Leda and the Swan, Hermes and a young Dionysus, Cassiopeia, Apollo and Marsyas, and Dionysius with a thiasos. The building is considered to be a house, but its architectural plan, decoration and specific elements indicate that it could have served public functions.
Analysis of the architecture of the House of Aion indicates that there were few phases of this building, although there are traces of reconstructions 22 . The earliest walls date to the early Hellenistic period, and the pottery is from the classical period 23 . This early building was destroyed during the construction of the Aion House. When the foundations of the House of Aion were discovered, they crossed the clay floor of the early Hellenistic house. Excavations have shown repairs to the Aion mosaic; the probable reconstructions of wall 001; the division of the entire room in two smaller rooms, in the eastern part of the insula (rooms 18-19) and the change of room 10 24 .
It seems that in the initial phase rooms 1, 2 and 3 were constructed. In room 1, over the mosaic, late Roman material from the 4th and 5th century and Byzantine material were located 25 . In the lime mortar, under the mosaic in room 1, a coin of the emperor Licinius was found. Mosaics in the vestibule, room 2, and in room 3 appear to have been made at the same time 26 . It seems that during the next phase the western wall of room 1 was partially destroyed. During this period room 10 and room 19 functioned in its original form. Later, the reconstruction of the western wall of room 1 and the repairs of the mosaic with Aion occurred. During this period rooms 6 and 18 were in use, while room 10 and 19 functioned in a new form. During the next phase the building was 19 finally destroyed. Its use was limited to a street south of the insula and to the use of limestone furnace in the ruins of House of Aion 27 . In the House of Aion the main area is occupied by room 1 and room 2, both with mosaics. The walls of these rooms have mostly collapsed, with the best-preserved point the wall 70 cm above the mosaic. In room 1, the Aion mosaic is laid in typical form, which suggests that this room could be a triclinium. Fragments of glass vessels were found here, confirming that feasts took place in this compartment. Room 2 with a geometric mosaic is interpreted as a vestibule 28 . In the triclinium the niche in the western wall was reconstructed. The triclinium-vestibule unit in the House of Aion is located next to the one of the main streets of the city, called B 29 , which runs from the west to east, and leads from the residential Maloutena district to the Paphos harbour. This triclinium was not typical. It is located near the street. Normally in Cyprus, a triclinium was located in the back of the rooms. Here the triclinium is preceded by a large vestibule, which was accessible directly from the street, and performed partly a public function. It is assumed that the main entrance led from the street B to the vestibule. This part of the House of Aion was adorned by a monumental facade over the main gateway 30 (see Figure 4). To the north of room 1 is room 3 with a geometric mosaic. The mosaic is located 40 cm lower than the mosaic in room 1. Walls in room 3 have survived better than those of room 1 and room 2, up to 90 cm above the mosaic 31 . There is a threshold between room 1 and room 3. Room number 3 could have served representative purposes in the House of Aion.
To the east of room 3 are several constructions, rooms 13, 14, 15. Under the floor of the rooms 13 and 14, which are assumed to be a corridor, there is an empty space. Apart from the nails, no traces of the floor was found. The floor was probably wooden, made of wooden boards supported by transverse walls. In the eastern part of this corridor the boards were lying on the vault of a tank (number 15) available from the room 7. Above the preserved cistern vault was the threshold to the vestibule. At the threshold, in this room, a goat skeleton was found 32 . Perhaps this area was used for rituals.
Another interesting room is located at the north-east corner of the vestibule-triclinium unit 33 . In room 7 benches, which served to reinforce the wooden floor, were found. There was also a doorway to cistern number 15. Remains of painted plaster from the walls and ceilings were discovered there, with figural, geometric and vegetal motives. The figural panel was of extraordinary quality and included an image of a man with a kitharodos, perhaps Apollo. This motif was popular in wealthy houses, serving decorative purposes in libraries. Analogies may be seen in Ephesus. We do not know when the paintings were done in this room but they appear to be contemporary with the mosaics in the triclinium 34 . Numerous coins dated from 351-355 AD were found here and the oldest ceramics are dated to the 5th century 35 . The erection of the House of Aion must be connected with construction of this room.
In room 10, further east, two phases of use were detected. Originally room 10 had an official function. Fragments of paintings imitating marble and porphyry, with floral and geometric patterns and garlands of red flowers, fruit and green leaves were found 36 . In the second phase, four tanks were placed in the floor of the room. All elements indicate that in the second phase this room was used to store and to produce wine or olive oil. It seems that it was an open space. The final destruction of this room dates probably to the 5th century, likely by an earthquake 37 . Room number 6 is considered a portico 38 . Room number 16E functioned as a courtyard. It seems that originally a single compartment existed there. Later it was divided in two by a large wall, on a west-east axis, with limestone blocks. This wall seem to be contemporary with the mosaic in room 6. The precise date of the mosaics from rooms 5, 6 and 8 is not clear but they are contemporary 39 . The entire area of compartment number 16 was plundered in the 5th to 7th centuries and later 40 .

B. Lichocka and H. Meyza, Seismic events and the evidence of coins and pottery. The case of destruction of the House of Aion in
It seems clear that originally the House of Aion extended further east and south, and that rooms in that part of the house were of an domestic nature.
To the east of room 10 were another compartments, 17-19 and 21. This part belongs to the last phase of the building, just before the destruction of the House of Aion. Their final state is the result of intensive redevelopment of the earlier phase. Pottery and coins found on and immediately below the last floor from room 18 and in the trench in the northern part of the room 19 suggests that these rooms were erected and the floors constructed during the late Constantinian period or soon after 41 . In room 17 a simple mosaic of large gray tesserae, with some black, white and brown was found. The same floor type was found in room 6 and room 8. Room 18 was probably a corridor, which led to the entrance in room 6 on the west and to the entrance in room 19 to the north 42 . Room 19 was the largest of all in this part of the House of Aion, and was lined with mortar stones. In room 19 a floor of the pebbles went south just below the northern wall of room 18, which is proof that this part of the building was previously organized in a different way. Originally there was a large, single structure. In the fill of room 19, among others, architectural elements were found. Thirteen fragments forming an arch, a lintel, an engaged column, an impost and two consoles were recognized. Dr. Aleksandra Brzozowska-Jawornicka, an architect of the Polish Archaeological Mission in Nea Paphos, reconstructed these fragments as a part of the main gate of the House of Aion 43 . In room 17 the traces of the earlier, limestone floor were found, about 23 cm below the mosaic. During excavations in room 21 material from the 4th and 5th centuries was found 44 .
Research at the eastern and south-eastern part of the House of Aion are extremely important because they show that the house plan did not correspond to 38 Daszewski, Nea Paphos Excavations, 1998, 171-172. the typical layout and plan of a house known from other examples from Nea Paphos 45 . The divisions in this insula run along the urban area, rather than across it. The area of the complex with the Aion mosaic still awaits excavations. The expansion of the excavation to the east of the room 19 has allowed the discovery of a massive wall, on a north-south axis, which could have served as the outer wall of this building 46 .
In the south-eastern part of the House of Aion rooms 40-43 were found. Room 40 could be a portico of the courtyard, dated to the 5th century. Two irregular columns-plinths were found in this room, as was a fragment of floor made of amphora and fragments of pottery mixed with mortar, evidently instead of ruined mosaic floor. The remains of this part are very damaged and fragments of the pure white mosaics in rooms 41-42 were found shifted along with part of the wall between the two rooms. The best preserved room is the one located to the east, numbered 43, where traces of economic activity have been found: column drums were reused as a mortar 47 .
The House of Aion was separated from the North-Eastern House by a well-preserved wall in which a hole was discovered, perhaps a locked window or storage compartment. The North-Eastern House and the House of Aion were erected on a different levels; significant differences (about 40-50 cm) in the floor levels of the latest floors of both buildings are observed. There is no evidence of a transition between the House of Aion and the North-Eastern House, but we cannot exclude that the House of Aion and the North Eastern-House were not, at least for a some time, a single residential complex.
It is assumed that the North-Eastern House served as a residential complex while some of the features of the rooms and iconography in the House of Aion indicate that this residence could have performed public functions. Perhaps residential rooms were located in the southeastern part but it is difficult to verify because this part of the House of Aion is very damaged. It is important to note that while the entire quarter of the city in late Roman period was abandoned, the House of Aion and the North-Eastern House functioned at least until the 6th century. This insula, for some reason, was distinguished from others. There are unusual features, not seen in other buildings from the area of Nea Paphos, such as the divisions in the insula running along the area, rather than across it, as in other insulas. In the House of Aion a complex of rooms decorated with mosaics (including a monumental mosaic with the representation of Aion), which were accessible from the street, a room with benches and wall paintings of high quality, and a complex of rooms with probably a wooden floor, which does not occur often in the architecture of this region, are worth mentioning. This is interesting in the context of the location of the House of Aion in the representative part of the city and in the immediate vicinity of the 45. W. A. Daszewski, Nea Paphos: Excavations 1997, 129. 46. H. Meyza, "Nea Paphos: Season 2008  Villa of Theseus, the largest residential building in Cyprus, where 100 rooms were found. It is assumed that this building served some official function 48 . Of particular importance is the fact that at the time when the House of Aion and the North-Eastern House still functioned, the quarter in which the late Roman insula was located had already been abandoned.
Polish archaeologist discovered at Nea Paphos also the Villa of Theseus 49 . It is dated to the Roman period and functioned also during the late Roman period; a slow degradation of this residential complex started most likely in the 2nd half of the 5th century AD. In the 6th century AD the building was inhabited by squatters 50 . It is the largest residential building discovered to date in Cyprus. The form of this residence was derived from the Greek pastas house-type 51 . The Villa of Theseus was maintained in the Hellenistic tradition 52 . The plan of this building has certain structures: courtyards and porticoes, large entrance rooms, rooms with apses, baths and rich decorations. The southern wing of this residence dominates over the rest of the building and was the most representative part of this building. In the western zone of the house the private residence of the owner was situated, and in the north and east storage rooms were located 53 . Villa of Theseus is a good example of how private peristyle house was designed to take over some functions relating to public life.
Villa of Theseus is the most impressive building discovered, to date, in Cyprus, the building is interpreted as a palatium. There are no direct analogies between the Villa of Theseus and the late Roman insula.
Late Roman houses were excavated at Kourion 54 on Cyprus, but their architecture was functional, without peristyle courtyards, mosaics, paintings and apses. This indicates that the elite did not live here. It is not possible to compare these structures to the late Roman insula in Nea Paphos.
Some late Roman structures, probably also residential, were found at Kalavasos-Kopetra, but excavations were too limited and so we cannot compare the architecture from Nea Paphos to these structures 55 .
Based on the information described above there is no direct analogy by which to compare the late Roman architecture of the North-Eastern House and the House of Aiona and to help interpret the function of the House of Aion. Nea Paphos in Cyprus is located in the eastern part of the Mediterranean Basin. This well-preserved ancient city was founded in the Hellenistic period, during the reign of the Ptolemies, with the monuments from Greek, Roman and Byzantine times 56 . Nea Paphos was Greek speaking when brought under Ptolemaic rule 57 . The city minted its own coin 58 , and at the end of the 3rd century BC it was probably the seat of the Ptolemy governor 59 . From the second half of the 1st century BC Cyprus became a senatorial province. It is assumed that Nea Paphos was the capital of Cyprus during the Hellenistic period and of the Roman province of Cyprus 60 . In the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, the city developed as never before. After an earthquake in 332, Nea Paphos lost the status of the capital of Cyprus, but art and culture still flourished there. From the 4th century Nea Paphos was the capital of the bishopric, and in the 7th century the life of the Christian community of the city focused around the churches, although later the city fell into ruin 61 . Cyprus was one of the Mediterranean trade centers. It is assumed that one of the trade routes ran through Cyprus to Crete, then to the Libyan coast, to the Nile, and to the coast of Syria 62 . In ancient Cyprus lived Greek citizens, Persians, people from Cyrenaica and Egypt, and then also Roman citizens 63 . The island was an ancient crossroads of cultures of the Eastern Mediterranean 64 . Cyprus, due to its geographic location, has never ceased to be a meeting place and a bridge between East and West 65 .
Based on these facts, it is clear that in the architecture of the late Roman insula of Nea Paphos, influences from other surrounding regions can be observed. Interpretation of the architecture of the late Roman insula should be based on analogies to different parts of Mediterranean World.
It is safe to conclude that information on residential architecture in Cyprus indicate that residential building in Cyprus during the Hellenistic and Roman periods refers more to Greek than to Roman patterns, but the traces of Romanization in private and public life are visible 66 . The residential architecture have the same characteristics as other Roman buildings from former Greek World. The buildings were centered around the peristyle, and the secondary role of atrium is seen. In some residences the oecus functioned as a representative room 67 . In the late Roman period rooms with apses connected to a peristyle or triclinium appeared. In the late Roman and Byzantine periods, rooms of houses were divided and reduced in size, remodeled by squatters. Small workshops or other craft activities on a local scale took place there. In the architecture of Nea Paphos an analogy to Alexandria appears, mainly architectural elements, for example, in the form of Corinthian capitals. Particularly popular in Cyprus was the heterodox Corinthian capital associated with Alexandria. Nabataean capitals were also used in Cyprus and are found at Nea Paphos. During research on some of residential architecture in Nea Paphos a limited amount of tiles was discovered. Perhaps the buildings were covered with flat roofs or terraces. This is typical for the Eastern-mediterranean tradition.
Some of these characteristics are seen in the case of the North-Eastern House, where there are open courtyards, but no trace of atrium. In the North-Eastern House a clear division between representative and domestic parts are observed. The House of Aion also is a type of building with courtyard with porticos, triclinium and without an atrium. In the southern facade of the House of Aion, with a main gateway, elements typical for the ancient baroque style can be observed 68 .

Conclusions
Professor Daszewski, the longtime head of Polish Archaeological Mission at Nea Paphos, believes that the House of Aion was the seat of the pagan religious-philosophical association at a time, when Christianity was spreading on the island 69 . But this hypothesis is still to be proved and research on the functions of the House of Aion is still in progress. In the residential architecture of Cyprus influences of Greek, Roman, Alexandrian and Levantine traditions continued. So the analogies to the architecture of the late Roman insula could be found among residences in the regions indicated above. Studies on the architecture of the late Roman insula and functions of the House of Aion should be continued. Bibliography