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Cuing Contributes to the Independent Modification of Multiple Internal 2 3 Models for Vocal Control 4 5 6 7

45 Research on the control of visually-guided limb movements indicates that the 46 brain learns and continuously updates an internal model that maps the 47 relationship between motor commands and sensory feedback. A growing body of 48 work suggests that an internal model that relates motor commands to sensory 49 feedback also supports vocal control. There is evidence from arm-reaching 50 studies that shows that when provided with a contextual cue, the motor system 51 can acquire multiple internal models, which allows an animal to adapt to different 52 perturbations in diverse contexts. In this study we show that trained singers can 53 rapidly acquire multiple internal models regarding voice fundamental frequency 54 (F0). These models accommodate different perturbations to ongoing auditory 55 feedback. Participants heard three musical notes and reproduced each one in 56 succession. The musical targets could serve as a contextual cue to indicate 57 which direction (up or down) feedback would be altered on each trial, however 58 participants were not explicitly instructed to use this strategy. When participants 59 were gradually exposed to altered feedback adaptation was observed 60 immediately following vocal onset. Aftereffects were target specific and did not 61 influence vocal productions on subsequent trials. When target notes were no 62 longer a contextual cue, adaptation occurred during altered feedback trials and 63 evidence for trial-by-trial adaptation was found. These findings indicate that the 64 brain is exceptionally sensitive to the deviations between auditory feedback and 65 the predicted consequence of a motor command during vocalization. Moreover, 66 these results indicate that, with contextual cues, the vocal control system may 67