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Changes in Caribbean surface hydrography during the Pliocene shoaling of the Central American Seaway

Pliocene d18O records of shallow and deep dwelling planktonic foraminifers from the Caribbean (Ocean 
Drilling Program sites 999 and 1000), the tropical east Pacific (sites 1241 and 851), and the Atlantic (site 925, 
Ceara Rise, and site 1006, western Great Bahama Bank) were used to examine Atlantic-Caribbean-Pacific 
atmospheric and oceanic linkages associated with the progressive closure of the Central American Seaway 
(5.5–3 Ma). Comparisons indicate the development of an inner-Caribbean salinity gradient in the mixed layer 
and salinity changes on precessional periodicities after 4.4 Ma (site 1000), when the Pacific-Caribbean 
throughflow became significantly restricted. The high-amplitude variability in salinity is also observed at site 
1006, monitoring the Caribbean outflow into the Atlantic. Comparisons of Caribbean and Atlantic planktonic 
d18O records suggest the North Atlantic subtropical gyre as a major source for high-salinity surface waters. 
Precession-induced variations in the volume transport of Pacific surface water masses through the Panamanian 
Seaway are considered a main factor to explain the Caribbean salinity minima. Results from a coupled climate 
model point to changes in the El Nin˜o–Southern Oscillation state as a potential trigger for changes in the 
amount of Pacific inflow into the Caribbean.