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The Near and Middle East

muwashshah—in which the refrain (kharja) is sometimes in Romance dialect' (p. 1036). Maria Rosa Menocal goes even further, and speaks of the whole sixth strophe of the muwashshah, which, she says, ' also happens to be its refrain ... and thus probably repeated after each other stanza' (p. 486). To call the kharja of the muwashshah a refrain does not only amount to a misunderstanding of the term itself but to a confusion of the issues involved, which is apt to make any future study of the subject misguided and totally fruitless. Apart from acknowledgements and a foreword by the editor, this volume is prefaced also by a helpful note from Christopher Tingley, the style editor, concerning the standardization of usage as regards names, dates, names of cities, etc. This should have helped to set right also such English usages as 'Arabic leaders' (p. 1036), 'Arabic neighbour' (p. 1041), where the adjective should be 'Arab' , and 'Arab speaking' (p. 609), where the adjective should clearly be 'Arabic'. Finally, in our effort to do justice to the Arabs of al-Andalus, we should not be unfair to Arabs elsewhere. In her attempt to portray poetry in al-Andalus in its proper perspective, Salma Jayyusi finds it necessary, and quite rightly so, to locate its headwaters, so to speak, in pre-Islamic Arabic poetry. She describes the severe struggle for existence in the desert, where, as she remarks, 'Survival becomes dependent on the capacity to kill ...'. She makes this remark in the context of speaking about the hunt in the desert. But in fairness to the desert Arabs, it could well be said that they did not make a greater ritual of the hunt than any of their contemporaries did, or than some of us continue to do even today. Apart from that, survival in the desert did often depend on man's concern for man. It is no myth that fires were lit by the desert dwellers at night, to guide travellers to where food and shelter were freely offered to them.