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Old dog, new trick: Trivalent arsenic as an immunomodulatory drug

Trivalent arsenic (As(III)) is recently found to be an immunomodulatory agent. As(III) has therapeutic potential in several autoimmune and inflammatory diseases in vivo. In vitro, it selectively induces apoptosis of immune cells due to different sensitivity. At a non‐toxic level, As(III) shows its multifaceted nature by inducing either pro‐ or anti‐inflammatory functions of immune subsets. These effects are exerted by either As(III)–protein interactions or as a consequence of As(III)‐induced homeostasis imbalance. The immunomodulatory properties also show synergistic effects of As(III) with cancer immunotherapy. In this review, we summarize the immunomodulatory effects of As(III), focusing on the effects of As(III) on immune subsets in vitro, on mouse models of immune‐related diseases, and the role of As(III) in cancer immunotherapy. Updates of the mechanisms of action, the pioneer clinical trials, dosing, and adverse events of therapeutic As(III) are also provided.