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Processes of globalisation and small and medium-sized cities [version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review]

Progressive urbanization, economic integration, and development of modern technologies lead to the emergence of a new generation of globally networked cities attracting capital, ideas and people. Size is not the most significant factor influencing the importance of a city. At least equally important are innovation, activity in city networks, the activity of the inhabitants and the quality of life. The research problem of this paper is the question whether and how small and medium-sized cities show their manifestations of globalisation? The hypothesis is that every city, including small and medium-sized ones, shows some manifestations of globalisation. Such manifestations may be classified as political, economic, socio-cultural, and other. The conclusions confirm that the hypothesis has been positively verified. The cities chosen for examination include the European cities of Arhus (Denmark), Basel (Switzerland), and Tallinn (Estonia) as they are representative for other small and medium-sized cities. The paper is based on qualitative research methods, primarily discourse analysis (e.g. strategies implemented by cities and political manifestos of local officials), multiple case studies, and literature analysis.


Introduction
Literature on small and medium-sized cities is clearly less extensive compared to the one on global cities (on systemic review of the literature on small and medium-sized cities see Wagner & Growe, 2021; on modern development of small and medium-sized cities see Rastvortseva & Manaeva, 2022). By 2050, cities will account for 68 percent of the world population and these will not only be very large cities. As a matter of fact, in the time frame of 2010-2030, cities with a population of less than one million will host 47 percent of the global urban population increase in sub-Saharan Africa, 38 percent in Asia, and 32 percent in Latin America (UN Habitat, 2021;UN, 2018). To this should be added that today's cities constitute "globally interconnected entities", particularly when global and world cities are considered (Wagner & Growe, 2021, p. 105).
The notion of 'world city' was first invented by Patrick Geddes (in 1915) to define those localities where a disproportionate volume of global trade was conducted. The definition of world city evolved in the research of such authors as John Friedmann (1986) and Saskia Sassen (1991). They developed and expanded the definition and stressed the global political and economic power of some cities (New York, London, and Tokyo) regarded as command centres of the worldwide economy (Taylor et al., 2007, p. 183). Another essential term, that of 'global city', also emphasises that something more than city size or structure is necessary to be global. Here relations between a city and the world are crucial, meaning that a global city is no longer deep-rooted or embedded in a state urban structure and state governance but participates more extensively and directly in multi-level global governance. Sassen's works are particularly important regarding the above-mentioned evolution. She explains that global cities are "command and control centers in the organization of the world economy, key locations and marketplaces for the leading industries of the current period, that is, finance and specialized services for firms, sites of production including the production of financial innovations and as markets for the products and innovations produced" (Sassen, 1991, pp. 3-4; see also Amen et al., 2011, p. 24;Derudder et al., 2015).
While the term 'global city' is used to describe the highest level of the global hierarchy of cities which is conditioned first of all by cities' position as places of controlling global finances, 'globalizing city' is the notion used to indicate two different issues: first, that all or almost all cities are affected by the globalization processes and second, that participation or engagement in this process does not depend on one the position of the city, up or down the hierarchy structure but rather on the character and extent of the impact of the process. The nature of such engagement is by no way the same, moreover, surely not all cities agree upon a specific model of a 'globalized' city (Marcuse & van Kempen, 2000, pp. 262-263). Kaufmann, Léautier, and Mastruzzi (2006) indicate that there are two major lines of argumentation in the literature in the field of globalization of cities and which point to two understandings of the term 'globalized city' which is similar to 'globalizing city': • Globalized city meaning a place: a city is a point on the world map which is delimited by its administrative borders but is still part of global movements, including foreign direct investment closely linked with private firms' decisions to locate in specific cities; the movement of people working for these firms or simply people visiting in business matters, and finally the movement of goods and services generated by these firms (Kaufmann et al., 2006, p. 28).
• Globalized city meaning a 'sustained achievement of performance': here a city provides services to its inhabitants and its performance may be assessed by the quality and reliability of such services over time (for example access to water, telephone services, electricity or sewerage) as well as by the extent to which a city includes its citizens in decision making processes and responds to their demands. Overall, an important factor is how well the city is governed. Such a globalized city maintains relations with other municipalities and influential actors of the global economy, among the latter firms, people and various institutions scattered across the world-city network (Kaufmann et al., 2006, pp. 28-29).
As to small and medium-sized cities, there is no universal definition of such cities. For example, according to the general classification of the Bundesinstitut für Bau-, Stadtund Raumforschung, small German towns are described as "municipalities with between 5000 and under 20,000 inhabitants or with at least a basic central function; medium-sized cities are defined as municipalities with between 20,000 and under 50,000 inhabitants" (Wagner & Growe, 2021, p. 107). Authors of different case studies and articles adopt a variety of definitions of small and medium-sized cities, mostly based on the size of the city population and taking into account spatial factors. The literature offers estimates between 5000 and 500,000 inhabitants as small and medium-sized cities (Russo et al., 2017;Servillo et al., 2017;Wagner & Growe, 2021, pp. 114, 117-118). According to World Cities Report (2020, p. 14) the small and medium (or 'intermediate' or 'secondary') cities are cities with less than 1 million inhabitants. The division presented above coincides with the research findings conducted by the Furman Centre for Real Estate and Urban Policy at New York University. Considering data from the 2000 Decennial Census and the American Community Survey (from 2015 to 2019) allowed for the designation of four groups of cities, classified by population size. Small cities were defined as those with populations between 50,000-99,999, small-mid-sized cities with populations 100,000-149,99, mid-sized cities: 150,000-499,999, and large cities: 500,000 residents or more (Raetz, 2021).
Small and medium-sized cities accommodate 59 percent of the global urban population and a majority of the city inhabitants in every region. Such cities are also more conducive to economic growth (Frick & Rodriguez-Pose, 2017). According to the European Commission (2012, p. 5) there are six categories of cities -S (small): 50,000 to 100,000 inhabitants, M (medium): 100,000 to 250,000 inhabitants, L (large): 250,000 to 500,000 inhabitants, XL (extra-large): 500,000 to 1,000,000, XXL (extra extra-large): 1,000,000 to 5,000,000, and global city (more than 5,000,000). This definition could be criticised, for example, global cities are, after all, only referred to in the European Commission's definition as cities with more than five million inhabitants.
Another project of relevance to this article is the European Spatial Planning Observation Network (ESPON) Town Project, whose main objective is "to create a methodology to identify small and medium-sized towns" (https://www.espon. eu/programme/projects/espon-2013/applied-research/town-%E2%80%93-small-and-medium-sized-towns). In the final report of 2013 (Espon, 2013a) the typology is even more complicated as illustrated in Figure 1 below.
Moreover, within the concept of the '15-minute city' that is gaining significance both politically and in urban planning design, the idea of smaller cities becoming global ones is currently more feasible than ever before. A 15-minute city is an ideal spot where most human needs and desires are located within a travel distance of 15 minutes (mainly at a walking or biking distance). Cities organized in this way are gaining popularity recently not only because of the pandemic but also because of their socio-economic equity (cars are not required anymore), minimized need for transportation (the fuel reduction mitigates global warming), and improvement in quality of life (i.e., human-powered transportation improves health and well-being, services are conveniently located). Therefore, it means that cities with a medium-sized or even relatively small population can also have a chance to become global cities and at the same time maintain the quality of life of their inhabitants (Duany & Steuteville, 2021).
Some studies have examined and typified small and medium-sized towns in the country-specific context under certain aspects like Gareis & Milbert (2020) and Mager & Wagner (2022), both exploring small and medium-sized towns in Germany and Meili & Mayer (2017) focusing on small and medium-sized towns in Switzerland. Christophe Demazière (2017, p. 20) pointed out that the presented typology based on the size of cities can be interpreted differently by city authorities, depending on the objectives they pursue (including, among others, for the purpose of strengthening regional identity or mobilising resources). As examples, the researcher mentioned the activities of the 8,000-inhabitants Chinon in establishing the Association of Small Towns of France, and of Dos Hermanas, inhabited by 120,000 residents, practically integrated with the 700,000-strong Seville, aiming to construct an identity that strengthens the city's subjectivity in its relations with decision-makers in Seville (Demazière, 2017, p. 20-21).
The research problem of this paper is the question whether and how small and medium-sized cities show their manifestations of globalisation? The hypothesis is that every city, including small and medium-sized ones (which in this paper are defined on the basis of the population criterium in the global context and not only European, as cities with a population not exceeding 500,000 inhabitants), shows some manifestations of globalisation. Such manifestations may be classified as political, economic, socio-cultural and other. In the same vein, Taylor et al. (2007, p. 12) "challenge anybody to find a contemporary city or town that shows no evidence of globalization processes in the activities that occur within it. Given that [they] expect nobody to be able to meet this challenge, [they] conclude that all cities today can be characterized to some degree as both "world" and "global" in nature. Hence, they are all 'cities in globalization'". The article discusses the extent to which globalization tendencies are discernible in small and medium-sized towns. As such, it focuses on a scientifically relevant topic and aims to provide some essential empirical evidence proving that not only large cities are predestined to be perceived as global cities.
The manifestations of globalization may take various forms such as participation in international conferences or city networks, hosting headquarters of international bodies or summits, having a prestigious and internationally influential university or other research centre or some cultural institutions that radiate worldwide. Hence, these manifestations can be classified into political, economic, and socio-cultural. Some, if not most of them, are carefully planned and result from purposeful actions to increase the city's visibility and brand. A starting point for discussion as well as a theoretical embedment of the present paper is Blotevogel's (1998) and Growe & Volgmann's (2016) typology of metropolitan functions: "(1) the decision-making and control functions by public and private actors (governments and corporate headquarters); (2) innovation and competition functions (generation and transfer of knowledge of product and process innovations); (3) gateway functions (transport and communication functions); and (4) symbolic functions (the cultural and cultural-economic dimension)" (Volgmann & Münter, 2022, p. 2).
The cities chosen for examination include the European cities of Arhus (Denmark), Basel (Switzerland), and Tallinn (Estonia) as they are representative for other small and medium -sized cities. The paper is based on qualitative research methods, primarily discourse analysis, multiple case studies, and literature analysis.

Cities under examination
Since 1998, every two years researchers based at the Globalisation and World Cities Research Network (GaWC) at Ghent University in Belgium and the geography department of Loughborough University in the United Kingdom has produced a classification of global cities dividing them into 'Alpha', 'Alpha-', 'Beta+', 'Beta', 'Beta-', 'Gamma+', 'Gamma', 'Gamma-', 'high sufficiency', and 'sufficiency' tiers (GaWC City Link Classification, 2018). This is done on the basis of their international connectedness. The GaWC, a university think tank, examines the associations and interactions between the world cities in the context of globalization. According to the GaWC's city classification for 2018 Arhus was placed in the category of sufficiency, Tallin and Basel -gamma. Gamma level cities are defined on the one hand as cities that connect smaller regions or states into the global economy and, on the other, as "important world cities whose major global capacity is not in advanced producer services while cities with sufficiency of services" (The World According to GaWC, nd). Cities in the sufficiency category are not world cities but their services are sufficient for them not to depend too much on world cities. At this level of integration and connectedness, two specific city categories are prevalent: smaller capital cities and traditional centres of production regions (GaWC City Link Classification, 2018; The World According to GaWC, nd). Table 1 presents data on the populations of the cities under examination. It shows that the population of none of them exceeds 440,000, so they can be classified as small or medium-sized cities, depending on the criteria adopted. It should be remembered, however, that it is not only the size of the population, but the activities undertaken by the indicated cities in various spheres that affect their function"ing in a globalized world.

Aarhus
Aarhus is Denmark's second-largest city. With approximately 325,000 inhabitants, it is now the largest urban centre of the Central Denmark Region, which covers 19 municipalities and is inhabited by more than 1.3 million people. Aarhus is considered to be a city experiencing profound changes, as evidenced by the population growth forecast for 2005-2030 of 75,000 inhabitants (Eurocities, n.d.), which distinguishes the city from many urban centres in developed countries where the opposite trend can be observed. The importance of Aarhus for the Danish economy is demonstrated by its location on the eastern part of the Jutland Peninsula, at the crossroads of transportation routes, including links between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea through the Danish Straits. The city is home to Denmark's largest container port, which is also one of the 100 largest in the world. Within 100km of the city, there are two international airports, Aarhus and Billund, and external communication is based on highways, motorways, and ferries (Business Aarhus, 2019).
Another reason for the importance of Aarhus, both in the domestic and foreign context, is its history. The origins of Aarhus as a city are believed to date back to the 8th century CE, making it one of the oldest cities in Scandinavia and, according to some researchers, the oldest. The city has witnessed numerous key events and processes, was an important religious and trade centre during the Middle Ages and entered a period of rapid growth in the 19th century due to increased industrialization processes. With the establishment of Aarhus University in 1928 the city became the most important scientific and cultural centre in Jutland. Aarhus is an interesting example of a city that has taken a number of development initiatives while taking into account its own history and traditions. Today it can be described as an innovative city although in its context it is often referred to as "the world's biggest little town" or "the smallest metropolis in the world" (Danishnet, 2019). As illustrated by the examples presented below, both phrases seem to capture well the specificity of the city and its international engagement.
The population of Aarhus is considered the youngest in Denmark. The city has a higher share of immigrants in the total population than the country, at just under 16 percent (compared to slightly over 12 percent nationally). According to a study by Abdullah Alsmaeel (2018, p. 4), the city is described as a 'desirable destination' for immigrants due to its job market, good transport links, and many social and cultural initiatives. Nevertheless, this does not mean that immigrants do not face problems. Among the most evident difficulties are the relatively high cost of living and the difficulty in obtaining the desired immigration status, which are not problems faced by the Aarhus municipality alone. Diversity and providing equal opportunities for residents is one of the priorities of the city government, as reflected in the City of Aarhus Cultural Strategy 2021-2024, which emphasizes that "[w]e want to be a city with room for variety, and we consider diversity and equal opportunities a strength -in terms of age, gender, and ethnicity" (2021, p. 38). This vision is reflected in the city government's commitment to the LGBT+ community, manifested, for example, in Aarhus becoming the first city in Denmark to join the Rainbow Cities Network (https://www.rainbowcities.com/).
In terms of economic issues, the 11 East Jutland municipalities' initiative, called Business Region Aarhus (https://businessregionaarhus.dk/), is the basis for regional development and part of Aarhus campaign to create an attractive investment image. An important component of the project is internationalization, implemented through activities coordinated by the Internationalisation Committee. It is a body consisting of both private and public sector representatives, focusing on three initiatives: attracting young talents, also from abroad (including students), as well as companies and investments, improving the internationalization of companies already operating in the city, and developing foreigner-friendly city infrastructure (Internationalise with Aarhus..., 2015, p. 47, 49). Some of the largest companies operating in Aarhus include Arla, CSC, IBM, Google, Hummel, Jysk, Salling Group, and Terma, (Business Aarhus, 2019). The city has several business clusters that operate according to a carefully outlined action plan. They cover areas such as food, health and welfare, IT, digitalisation and Smart City, architecture and design, clean tech, energy of the future, fashion, education, shopping and production. Selected units are responsible for achieving the goals in a given area. In 2012, the Smart Aarhus project (https://smartaarhuseu. aarhus.dk/) was officially launched. The initiative addresses issues concerning the city's functioning in areas such as culture, energy, infrastructure, and sustainability. Smart Aarhus is managed by a secretariat, which in turn works closely with the local government and other entities, including universities and research institutes (Snow et al., 2016, p. 94-95 ). The willingness to achieve climate neutrality by 2030 should be considered particularly ambitious in the context of shaping the international image of Aarhus as an active urban centre and a model for other cities in the world. This goal has also been included in the 'Go Green with Aarhus' initiative (https://gogreenwithaarhus.dk/) and contains, among other provisions, a number of projects aimed at integrating modern technologies into the existing transmission infrastructure. An investment that can be considered a showcase for Smart Aarhus is Århus Waterfront. As noted by Olga Gazińska (2016, p. 11-12), the redeveloped waterfront fits well into the idea of smart city; this is evidenced, for example, by the fact that it is accessible by public transport and on foot, it is characterized by functional diversity, and it blends well with the adjacent residential area. One of the greatest attractions of the place is the public library, whereas the surrounding areas have been designed in a way that makes it possible to organize cultural events, sports, and concerts. Århus Waterfront symbolizes a modern way of thinking about the functionality of the city and it can be an inspiration for cities that are implementing sustainable projects. Some other ecological solutions applied in Aarhus can also be inspiring, e.g., the revamped waste management, including the system of collection of inorganic dry waste that is considered "very innovative" (Thomsen et al., 2018, p. 2).
Although the number of initiatives in the field of smart city is relatively large for a city of this size, and Aarhus' attractiveness for business and investment is growing, the city's main field of activity is culture. As rightly pointed out by Leila Jancovich and Louise Ejgod Hansen (2018, p. 6), Aarhus has a well-developed cultural infrastructure, which consists not only of well-known institutions such as the Aarhus Symphony Orchestra, ARoS Art Museum, or the Danish National Opera, but also culture houses located in individual housing estates. The most important success, and at the same time a benchmark for subsequent activities, was Aarhus winning the title of the European Capital of Culture in 2017. In connection with this award, a number of cultural initiatives were organized in Aarhus and the 18 municipalities of Central Denmark Region. The organizers intended to use the title of the European Capital of Culture as an opportunity to promote the city and the region and to stimulate their development, as well as to develop a legacy from which to draw in the years to come (European Capital of Culture..., 2015, p. 53). As late as the end of 2017, Aarhus, in agreement with other municipalities from the region, expressed its willingness to continue cooperation in the field of culture, thus highlighting its crucial importance for the development of the Central Denmark Region (Jancovich & Hansen, 2018, p. 12).
Despite taking active measures at the regional level, an important part of Aarhus' cultural strategy is its internationalization, also manifested in the organization of significant international events. Examples of events included in the Event Strategy City of Aarhus 2020Aarhus -2025Aarhus (2020 3) are Aarhus Dance Festival Break 2020, World Championship 29er 2021, and The Ocean Race Stopover 2023. The first three of the 10 focus areas included in the aforementioned strategy are sufficient to characterize the city's strategic goals in this field. They state that "[t]he event strategy has an overall international aim, but it also focuses on major national, regional or local events that can contribute to achieve the goals" (no. 1); "[e]vents in sports, culture, and tourism are the main focuses of the strategy, but other areas can also be included" (no. 2); "[e]vents as showcase for how the city of Aarhus will focus on sustainability and green change" (no. 3) (Event Strategy City of Aarhus..., 2020, p. 5). This type of listing, on the one hand, shows innovation in the city's approach to shaping its international image, and on the other, consistency in promoting programs and values such as sustainability and green change, considered strategic in previous documents. Worth noting is especially Aarhus' activity in the field of organizing sports events. In 2017 the city hosted the SportAccord Convention, and in recent years also top-level competitions in golf, badminton, or sailing (Aarhus, Denmark: How Sports…, 2021).
Aarhus' global orientation is also reflected in the vision of the City of Aarhus Cultural Strategy..., taking the wording "Aarhus -Culture in our heart, our eyes on the world" (2021, p. 13). This type of approach was also underscored by the city's commitment to the United Nation's (UN) Sustainable Development Goals ( . Similar findings are provided by Tessa Watt, who ranked Aarhus first on her list of mindful cities, i.e., cities that "contribute to the well-being of their citizens by inspiring and enabling mindful practices" (Buehler & Hirano, 2017). Aarhus can thus be considered a well-managed city that can serve as an inspiration for other small and medium-sized towns. Although in size Aarhus cannot compare to metropolises such as Paris, London or Tokyo, it can undoubtedly be considered a global city. In the case of Aarhus, numerous aspects of its 'global' nature deserve attention, but the character of the city seems to be best described by the words of the City of Aarhus Cultural Strategy... (2021, p. 5) that "Aarhus as an international city where culture sets an agenda". The example of Jutland's largest city proves that small and medium-sized cities can successfully conduct a global cultural policy and implement solutions, e.g., in the field of sustainability and carbon neutrality, which may become a model for others.

Basel
The city of Basel, located in the northwest of Switzerland, is one of the most dynamic economic regions in the country. Its population as of 2021 is approx. 178,000 people. The city is known due to its high level of internationalisation and a specialised economy based on high-tech manufacturing and a knowledge-intensive service sector.
Basel has a long and impressive history. The beginnings of the city date back to the 5th century BC. During the Holy Roman Empire, Basel was one of the seven cities that were subject only to the authority of the emperor or German king and were called Free Imperial City, Reichsstadt, or Freie Reichsstadt. Basel dropped this honourable and unique name after the Swabian War in 1499 and -as a consequence -on its accession to the Swiss Confederation in 1501.
Undoubtedly, the Basel metropolitan area is unique mainly due to its location at the meeting point of three countries: Switzerland, Germany, and France. In most circumstances, the state border negatively affects opportunities and puts brakes on exchange and cooperation due to cultural, institutional, and regulatory differences. Basel is the complete opposite; what is more, it is an example of how even the most unfavourable circumstances can be turned into an advantage. Here, the city located at the Swiss-German-French border represents a source of new opportunities at many different levels. This location enables the local authorities to gain increased autonomy thanks to unique means of cooperation and alliances formed across borders from the political perspective. In case of the three mentioned countries, it also increases Basel's chances to apply for financial resources designated to help cross-border cooperation (i.e., EU Territorial Cooperation (INTERREG) fund or agglomeration policy programs available in Switzerland). On the other hand, the presence of state borders provides additional opportunities on the institutional level. It enables invention of original forms of governance, particularly given the much greater flexibility of law and regulatory provisions regarding cross-border cooperation. Such favourable circumstances often lead to innovative programs and facilitate experiments with original tools. On an economic and functional level, Basel location offers unique conditions and attracts large and often international companies (easier commuting possibilities for a skilled workforce not only from Swiss Confederation but also Germany and France), which increases opportunities at the global level of competition.
Basel, Aarhus and Tallin have several common features, which justify their importance as global cities. These relatively small metropolitan centres (in terms of the population size) are endowed with a higher rank than expected, mainly because they have been successful in inviting global institutions and companies. Therefore, they are often called 'small yet global' cities. Many international and multinational companies and well-known brands have their headquarters and branches located in Basel. Currently, Basel is a business hub for life sciences, finance, logistics, and trade. With Basel's tri-border location, its proximity to an international airport (Basel-Mulhouse-Freiburg) and intercontinental airport (Zurich), and access to the Swiss Rhine ports, it was a matter of time to establish the Basel Area -a unique economic powerhouse Swiss business and innovation hub. The Basel provides all advantages for a business location: an excellent educational system, competitive tax rates, a business-friendly environment, and super quality of life. Therefore, it is no surprise that Basel has been a relentless magnet for scientists, researchers, and professionals from all over the world.
While looking for the Bank for International Settlements (BIS) location, its founders could not reach an agreement on the seat city. Thanks to the perception of Switzerland as a neutral country, Basel won over cities such as Amsterdam, Brussels, and London because it guaranteed to stay out of the influence of the significant powers; another advantage was the city's location, including the EuroAirport Basel-Mulhouse-Freiburg's excellent railway connections. Operating for almost a century, BIS associates leading central banks, which are private entities, and sets recommendations that become standard for the world's commercial banking system.
Additionally, the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS) responsible for the Basel Accords (Basel I, II, and III) is also located in Basel. BCBS consists of Central Banks representatives and authorities accountable for banking regulations, and it sets international banking standards regarding risk management.
The Global Infrastructure Basel Foundation (GIB), operating in the field of infrastructure has also its headquarters in Basel. GIB supports various stakeholders in designing, implementing and financing sustainable projects meeting resilience criteria. The city of Basel is also a co-headquarter (together with Zurich) to UBS Group AG -a Swiss multinational investment bank and financial services company that is the largest Swiss banking institution and the largest private bank in the world operating in all major financial centres around the globe.
In 2012 the Canton of Basel-Stadt was one of the founders of the Basel Peace Office. Together with the University of Basel, Swisspeace, International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War Switzerland (IPPNW) and many international partners among which were World Future Council (WFC), Global Security Institute (GSI), Middle Powers Initiative (MPI), Parliamentarians for Nuclear Non-proliferation and Disarmament (PNND), and Schweizer Anwälte für Nukleare Abrüstung (the Association of Swiss Lawyers for Nuclear Disarmament). The Basel Peace Office is a world-renowned institution that conducts advanced research and pursues policy-development programs dedicated to international peace, conflict resolution, and security to achieve the global abolition of nuclear weapons. It brings international organisation to Basel that has a long record of successful work on international security and nuclear disarmament (The Basel Peace Office -https://www. baselpeaceoffice.org/).
Basel also hosts important trade shows and fairs, including Art Basel (modern and contemporary art), Baseworld (watches and jewellery), Swissbau (construction and real estate), and Igeho (HoReCa sector).
The presence of global and international companies would not be possible if not for the joint efforts to establish the Swiss association Regio Basiliensis. In 1963 representatives of the civil society, the private sector, the cantons, and the academic sector created foundations for regional cooperation in the Upper Rhine region based on trinational location (Regio Basiliensis -https://www.regbas.ch/en/). More recently, cooperation ideas were strengthened by creating the Metrobasel initiative -a platform and think-tank established by the canton of Basel City and Novartis in 2005. Metrobasel is an analytical centre for developing the Basel trinational metropolitan region and ensuring economic prosperity and international competitiveness (Metrobasel official websitehttps://www.metrobasel.org/ch/). Such initiatives prove that both the Swiss and foreign private sector is becoming more aware of its unique location, has a sense of belonging to the city and is concerned about its future (Sarasin, 1997).
Additionally, Basel belongs not only to the European but also to world role models regarding environmental and climate policy. Since 2009, 100 percent of the electricity generated by the regional energy provider has come from renewable sources. Moreover, Basel actively fights climate change by being a member of the German-French-Swiss TRION-climate network and of the European Climate Alliance, and participating in cross-border water pollution control (Canton Basel-Stadt Official Website -https://www.bs.ch/en/Portrait/cosmopolitanbasel/traffic-hub.html).
Yet Basel is not only a centre for researchers and professionals. It is also a cultural metropolis with Theatre Basel widely recognizable in Europe ( Many rankings confirm that Basel ranks very high with regards to the quality of life, innovation and socio-economic environment. Basel has been often included in the premier league both nationally and internationally. Moreover, in fDi Magazine's survey 'European Cities and Regions of the Future' published by the Financial Times, the city of Basel was ranked eighth among western European cities and fourth in the 'Small Cities' category in the 2020/21 edition (Davies, 2020). Whereas, the latest 2022/23 edition ranked Basel as the top city in the "Small European Cities of the Future" category (Dettoni, 2022). According to the Quality of Living ranking (https://mobilityexchange.mercer.com/insights/quality-ofliving-rankings) published by the international consulting firm Mercer in 2019, Basel was placed among the top ten cities with the best quality of life. In turn, in 2020 Basel ranked second by Credit Suisse and UBS as one of the most attractive Swiss locations for companies (https://www.bs.ch/en/Portrait/ cosmopolitan-basel/international-competitiveness.html).
Undoubtedly, Basel's distinctive features make it a global city. A business-friendly environment, first-class support for research and education, diverse and international population, openness combined with creativity and knowledge-intensity, as well as the appreciation of art and culture place Basel among the best. Its case proves that big agglomerations and smaller ones may stand for the missing link in the world economy (Thierstein et al., 2008).

Tallin
Tallinn is the capital of Estonia and at the same time its largest city with a population of about 430,000 inhabitants. It lies on the northern coast of the state. The city has a special two-fold character combining history with modernity: the former is represented by a Hanseatic old town and the latter by a prosperous business centre with hotels, skyscrapers, and conference and relaxation venues. 51 percent of the Estonia's gross domestic product is generated by Tallinn, mostly coming from its industrial, transport, retail trade, construction, and shipbuilding sectors. There is one more extraordinary facet of Tallinn -is has been established to be one of the most digital cities in the world. It was a result of low taxes and well-educated employees, which contributed to the development of the IT sector in Tallinn. In 2011 the capital was announced the European Capital of Culture, which reflected that Tallinn offers a promising and vibrant cultural scene and well-preserved heritage (here again modernity blends well with tradition). Its beautiful old town was entered on the UNESCO World Heritage List, which is also important as cultural tourism generates a substantial income of the city (Alatalu, 2012). Furthermore, Tallinn offers good quality educational services, provided for example by the Tallinn University of Technology (the website of the University: https://taltech.ee/en; see also Sarv, Kibus and Soe, 2020), the Estonian Arts Academy, and one of the biggest English-language film and media institutions in Europe and the only one in northern Europe -the Tallinn University Baltic Film and Media School (Tallinn, nd). Apart from being the European Capital of Culture in 2011 Tallinn also won the European Green Capital 2023 Award (Congratulations to Tallinn…, 2021).
Concerning Tallinn two fields should be focused on: Tallinn as a smart and digital city and its participation in city networks. This determines Tallinn's international position as a 'globalized city' or 'city in globalization', in other words a city with manifestations of globalization.
Without doubt, the sustainable society of the future will be a smart and digital one that is relevant for Tallinn as it has branded itself as one of the most technologically-positioned cities of the world. Digital technologies and services facilitate the everyday life of people by contributing to more efficient and affordable communications. Such technologies offer new products and services and provide access to information. They also assist ordinary citizens in making their voices heard. Tallinn adopted the method of 'Think Global, Test in Tallinn' as a way to transform the city into a smart city. The capital city of Estonia is well prepared to deliver business support devoted to smart city enterprises and share the knowledge and good practices coming from real case studies conducted in cooperation with other cities (Eurocities, Tallinn).
As the first state in the world, Estonia proclaimed access to the internet as a basic human right, accepted digital signatures in most transactions, introduced online voting, and, in 2018, provided high-speed 5G network capability. All of these processes had an influence on Tallinn. Estonia's amazing transformation from Soviet state to a technologically advanced hub launched Tallinn onto the global arena. Worldwide innovation incubators are set up by start-ups such as Starship Technologies, a producer of 'delivery robots', by the Skype co-founders (also Estonian e-invention). In addition, two-thirds of Estonia's population lives in Tallinn (Kennedy Duckett, 2018;Sarv & Soe, 2021, p. 13). Tallinn 2035 development strategy concentrates on urban development and sustainability, digitalization and education (Tallinn 2035 development strategy sets ambitious targets for the city, 2020). The most important objectives include: 1. creating friendly urban space, 2. strengthening community, 3. implementing green revolution, 4. turning Tallinn into a world city, 5. providing proximity to home (15 minutes to city which is connected with the idea of the compact city), and 6. contributing healthy and mobile lifestyle.
To realize these objectives all the actions should be based on the following five main values: "1. purposefulness in achieving targeted results and curiosity for finding best solutions, 2. cooperation and independence, 3. wisdom and courage to make decisions and take responsibility, 4. reliability and openness of city officials and 5. customer focus and friendliness" (Sarv & Soe, 2021, p. 8; Tallinn 2035 development strategy sets ambitious targets for the city, 2020). This strategy is part of transforming Tallinn into smart, digital and sustainable city. These efforts were crowned in 2019 when Tallinn was rewarded with the International Smart City Award 2020 (Tallinn to be awarded…, 2020). According to the Smart City Index 2021 (p. 120), Tallinn was ranked 56 out of 118.
In the context of the position of Tallinn as a digital city, one may mention that the NATO Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence is headquartered in Tallinn. Its purpose consists of supporting NATO and its member states with exceptional interdisciplinary knowledge and skills in the domain of cyber defence research, exercises, and training. Such activities should concentrate on technological, strategical, operational and legal issues (CCDCOE, nd). The flagship research initiative of the Centre is so-called Tallin Manual which is known globally to the community of international lawyers and cyber experts. The first edition of the Tallinn Manual (published in 2013 by Cambridge University Press; Schmitt, 2013) focused on the most serious cyber operations -meaning operations that breach the ban on the use of force, authorize states to exert their right of self-defence, or take place in the framework of armed conflicts. The updated version, the Tallinn Manual 2.0 was published in 2017 (Schmitt, 2017) and the Tallinn Manual 3.0 is supposed to be published in 2026. Today the Tallinn Manual is recognized as an influential and authoritative publication used by policy experts and legal advisers managing cyber problems (Schmitt, 2017;The Tallinn Manual, nd). Tallinn seriously cooperates in the field of cyber security (Burksiene et al., 2020, p. 325, 326).
Tallinn is also very active in the framework of multilateral cooperation of cities as a member of many city networks such as Eurocities (see Burksiene et al., 2020, p. 311 (Burksiene et al., 2020, p. 320;Tallinn City Municipality, 2021). Cooperation with Helsinki, leading to the creation of Helsinki-Tallin Euregio, a cross-national form of governance, is underway and symbolizes another avenue of Tallinn's embracement of innovation, among others in the information and communication technologies (for more details see: Nauwelaers et al., 2013).
The International Relations and Protocol Department within the City Council is responsible for planning and coordinating Tallinn's international relations. Such relations and interactions include cooperation with partner cities, international and regional organisations and networks, developing and implementing eurointegration policies (International Relations and Protocol Department…, nd). Its tasks also encompass activities of a more protocol-ceremonial character such as organizing the city's guest reception and partaking by Tallinn's officials in international events. The International Relations and Protocol Department is responsible for concluding cooperation agreements with Tallinn's partner cities international institutions and city networks and monitoring their implementation. In matters of city's international relations and eurointegration, this department prepares projects of legislation (International Relations and Protocol Department…, nd).
Similar to Aarhus and Basel, Tallin successfully pursues its aspiration to be a global, smart, and sustainable city.

Discussion
The European cities examined in this article are well connected within the world city network. They engage in international city networks, the latter constituting a robust, complex, and interconnected ecosystem, which strengthens the position of cities in the international arena (multilateral diplomacy) as well as in bilateral diplomacy (sister city system). They carefully plan their international image and consequently implement it.
Each of them has chosen one particular area as their main and distinctive field of activity and promotion on the international arena -Aarhus is a city with strong cultural profile, Basel is a cross-border meeting point for business and innovation, and Tallin is a digital city. As small and medium-sized cities, Aarhus, Basel, and Tallinn are globalized to lesser or bigger extent: in different ways and to different degrees. Such manifestations may be varied, but what they have in common is that they are evidence of cities with increasingly active participation in international relations and a process of global multi-level governance. Cities gathered in international city networks are capable of solving local and even global problems Due to many issues mentioned above, all three cities can be considered as centres capable of producing new knowledge and reaping the benefits of innovation. Manifestations of globalization of small and medium-sized cities on the basis of the Aarhus, Basel, and Tallin are summarised in the Table 2 below. These manifestations clearly fit into the typology of metropolitan functions mentioned at the beginning of this article. The three examined cities serve as governments' and corporates' headquarters (hence they act as decision-making centres); they are spaces of innovation and competition (consequently, they generate knowledge of product and process innovations and then facilitate the transfer of such knowledge); they are essential elements in transportation and communication processes; and finally, they fulfil the symbolic functions in the field of culture and economy (for more details see: Espon, 2013b).
What is typical for the three cities examined is their active participation in various international city networks as well as bilateral sister city relations. In the economic field, Basel focuses strongly on the banking sector while for Aarhus and Tallinn the concept of smart city is important -for Tallinn even more so as it builds its image as a smart and digital city. All three cities put much emphasis on the development of cultural and educational institutions and events.

Conclusions
Conclusions that flow from this paper prove that progressive urbanization, economic integration, development of the world economy and modern technologies, lead to the emergence of a new generation of cities that are globally networked attracting capital, ideas, and people from around the world (Pieńkowski & Rybka-Iwańska, 2016, p. 348). And size is not the most significant factor influencing the importance of a city. At least equally important are: innovation, activity in city networks, dynamics and the activity of the inhabitants, the quality of life. Hence the relatively small cities like Aarhus, Basel, Tallin but also Brussels or Geneva may play a bigger role than cities where often the only distinguishing feature is their size, e.g., Mexico City, Dhaka, Karachi, Mumbai, Lima, or Kolkata (Pieńkowski & Rybka-Iwańska, 2016, p. 349), even though they are also facing different kind of challenges (see also Häußler & Haupt, 2021;Tennøy et al., 2022). Taking the above discussion into account the authors state that the hypothesis that every city, including small and medium-sized, shows some manifestations of globalization has been confirmed. As shown in Table 2 such manifestations may be classified as political, economic, socio-cultural and other.
Today all cities have become global (or globalized or globalizing at the least): the space of flows in which they operate today allows them to establish connections across the globe if the situation requires it. While a number of urban geography researchers still limit the use of the label 'global city' to metropolises whose participation in global flows is self-evident, newer studies suggest that the concept of 'non-global' cities may have become a thing of the past (Taylor et al., 2007, p. 185). World cities or global cities constitute economic, cultural and institutional centres of in the global network of flows. As such they are channels through which, on the one hand, national and provincial resources are introduced into the global economic system, and on the other, global impulses are transmitted back to national and provincial regions (Taylor et al., 2007, p. 184). Such perception of world/global cities and their creation processes reveals that the characteristic features of current globalisation make all cities global: today (almost) every city acts in the space of flows that empowers them to operate globally. Many of their actions are more outward than inward. Consequently, while many scholars in the urban studies, urban geography disciplines, sociology or political science (including international relations subdiscipline) use the notion of 'global city' to mean the prominent world metropolises that epitomize the space of global flows, this article as well as literature reviewed here clearly show that today every or almost every city is -to some extent -global. Taylor et al., suggest that "it is no longer possible to talk of 'non-global' cities" (Taylor et al., 2007, p. 185).

Data availability
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